Timeline of Events in China 1911-1936

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This timeline concerns the internal political developments of China from the Xinhai Revolution up until 1936.

In 1895, China was decisively defeated by the Empire of Japan in the Sino-Japanese War. Constitutional monarchist reformers took control in the aftermath and, with the support of the young Guangxu Emperor, orchestrated the Hundred Days' Reform, but a coup by Empress Dowager Cixi brought back the status quo. Disillusioned with the monarchy and the Qing government, many revolutionary groups began to emerge across the country: In 1905, revolutionary leaders such as Sun Yat-sen and Song Yiaroen met in Tokyo to discuss a merger between different revolutionary groups. A new group known as Tongmenghui (China United League) was formed after this meeting and would later evolve into the Kuomintang.

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The Failed Revolution

1911 (Xinhai Revolution)

After the Boxer Rebellion, many Western powers saw railway investments as part of the consolidation in their spheres of influence over China. To counter foreign influence, the different Chinese provinces were granted the right to organize their own railway construction ventures in 1905; In Sichuan, a local railway company issued shares to the public, including the local administration, gentry, merchants and influential landowners to gain access to capital. However, due to corruption, no real progress was made; This would backfire six years later.

German map of the late Qing Empire's railway system

In May 1911, the Qing government in Beijing, impatient with the progress of locally funded railway projects, therefore returns to foreign lenders, signing an agreement with British, German, French and American bankers. The goal: nationalizing the local rail ventures and then selling the rights to those ventures to foreigners to pay off the high amount of debts accumulated as a result of the Boxer Protocol. The nationalization order draws strong opposition across southern China, especially Sichuan: Many local shareholders are unsatisfied that they would only be partially compensated with government bonds, rather than silver.

Protests soon break out in Chengdu, public speeches are made against the plan, which is widely regarded as a seizure of valuable economic assets by the Manchu court and conversion of local property to foreign control. The demonstrations are bloodily supressed, which only worsens the overall situation. Underground anti-Qing groups, including the Tongmenghui, initiate armed clashes with Qing troops in and around Chengdu. As a result, Beijing orders the neighboring provinces of Hunan and Hubei to reinforce Sichuan with fresh troops; however, most soldiers have long been supplanted by revolutionaries.

The 1911 Wuchang Uprising would cause the downfall of the Chinese Empire.

On 11 October, with most of the local troops on the way to Sichuan, revolutionaries in the few army units that have remained in Wuhan launch the Wuchang Uprising: It is the beginning of the Xinhai Revolution. The mutineers soon capture the Wuchang mint and arsenal, and city after city declare against the Qing government. Prince Chun, the regent, panic-stricken, grants the assembly’s demand for the immediate adoption of a constitution and urges a former viceroy, Yuan Shikai, to come out of retirement and save the dynasty. In November, Yuan is made premier.

By the end of the year, 14 provinces have declared war against the Qing leadership. In several cities Manchu garrisons are being massacred, the regent has been forced out of office, a provisional republican government has been set up by the rebels at Nanjing, and the famous archrevolutionist Sun Yat-sen has returned from abroad and has been elected provisional president of China in late December. 1 January 1912 is set as the first day of the First Year of the Republic of China.

1912 (Declaration of the Republic)

However, Sun's Provisional Government in Nanjing has only nominal control over Southern China, so they are forced to negotiate a compromise with Yuan Shikai in Beijing: As Yuan can rely on the elite Beiyang Army, an armed confrontation would be fruitless. Nonetheless, smaller skirmishes still occur throughout the year. On 12 February 1912, Xuantong Emperor Puyi, 6 years old, is forced to abdicate the throne in a proclamation that transfers the government to the people’s representatives, declares that the constitution should thenceforth be republican, and gives Yuan Shikai full powers to organize a provisional government.

The late Song Jiaoren, one of the most important Chinese intellectuals and revolutionaries

On 10 March 1912, Yuan is proclaimed provisional president in Beijing, his power base. However, he refuses to move down to Nanjing, fearing assassination attempts.. The Nanjing authorities agree that the emperor is allowed to retain his title for life and receive a large pension. In an attempt to unify the country, Sun Yat-sen resigns the Southern presidency, and Yuan is chosen in his place. Li Yuanhong, who had come into prominence in Wuchang in the initial stages of the rebellion, is elected vice president. A provisional constitution is promulgated in March 1912 by the Nanjing parliament, and in April the government is transferred to Beijing.

During the chaos of the revolution, the forces of Tang Jiyao, a general from Yunnan and a participant of the Wuchang Uprising, invade the neighboring Guizhou Province, occupying it and expelling the old pro-Qing administration. Tang is recognized as military governor of Guizhou by the Beiyang government in May.

On 25 August 1912, the Nationalist Party, a predecessor organisation of the Kuomintang, is officially established at the Huguang Guild Hall in Peking, where the Tongmenghui and five smaller pro-revolution parties merge to contest the first national elections of 1912/13. Sun is chosen as the party chairman with famous revolutionary Huang Xing as his deputy. Most influential member of the party however is Song Jiaoren, who mobilizes mass support from gentry and merchants for the Nationalists to advocate a constitutional parliamentary democracy. The party opposes constitutional monarchists and seeks to check the power of President Yuan.

1913 (The Second Revolution)

The dead body of Song Jiaoren

The Nationalist Party would win an overwhelming majority in the first National Assembly election, gaining control over half of the seats and both houses. The second largest party is the Progressive Party, led by constitutional monarchist Liang Qichao, one of the intellectuals responsible for the Hundred Days' Reform and a known supporter of Yuan's presidency. Many expect the influential Song Jiaoren to become the next premier - shortly after however, he is assassinated in Shanghai, two weeks before the assembly convenes. The National Party accuses Yuan of ordering the assassination - but the latter denies.

Tensions between Yuan's Beiyang Clique and the Nationalist Party soon begin to rise. Realizing that at some point, armed confrontation would be inevitable, Yuan secures a Reorganization Loan of 25 million pounds sterling from Great Britain, France, Russia, Germany and Japan, without consulting the parliament first, in April. The loan is used to finance the expansion and modernization of Yuan's Beiyang Army.

China in August 1913, during the Second Revolution

In late May, Yuan concludes a deal with Russia that grants Russia special privileges in Outer Mongolia and restrict Chinese right to station troops there. The Nationalist Party once again calls out Yuan for abusing his powers and demands his removal from power. This would cause the Progressive Party to intervene in favour of Yuan, accusing the Nationalist Party of formenting an insurrection against the President. Yuan then decides to use military action against the nationalists: In July, seven southern provinces rebel against Yuan, beginning the Second Revolution, fought between Yuan's Beiyang Clique and the Nationalist Party. Additionally, bandits would rise up all over China against Yuan's regime, known as the Bai Lang Rebellion.

In the end, the revolt would fail; multiple pro-Nationalist governors are arrested before the uprising even starts, most prominently the famous, Cai E, an important commander during the Xinhai Revolution. Cai would be replaced by his his former associate Tang Jiyao, who returns from Guizhou. Also, rebels forces in the south stand no real chance against the invading Beiyang forces: By August/September, Jiangxi, Jiangsu, Anhui and the Southern capital of Nanjing are once again under Yuan's authority, many governors would defect back to the government. When the rebellion is finally suppressed, Sun and other high-ranking revolutionaries flee into exile to Japan.

Yuan Shikai, President of China: By betraying both his Qing superiors and later the nationalists, he would become the most powerful man in all of China.

In October, an intimidated parliament formally elects Yuan Shikai President of the Republic of China, and the major powers extend recognition to his government. Many trusted Beiyang generals are given prominent positions in his cabinet, among them many who would rise to power a few years later, like Duan Qirui, Feng Guozhang and Li Yuanhong. To achieve international recognition, Yuan Shikai has to agree to autonomy for Outer Mongolia and Tibet. China is still to be suzerain, but it would have to allow Russia a free hand in Outer Mongolia and Tanna Tuva (Treaty of Kyakhta) and Britain continuation of its influence in Tibet.

In November Yuan Shikai, legally president, orders the Nationalist Party dissolved and forcefully removes its last remaining members from parliament. Because the majority of the parliament members still belong to the Kuomintang, the parliament does not meet quorum and is subsequently unable to convene.

Rise and Fall of Yuan Shikai

1914

Throughout, Yuan consolidates his position, accumulating more powers for the Presidency: The Beiyang Army and bureaucratic control would become the foundation of his autocratic rule, laying the groundwork for Yuan becoming Emperor in 1916. His slow centralization of power however slowly alienates his former allies: the Progressive Party due to Yuan's increased undemocratic actions, provincial governors due to his imperial aspirations and restriction of provincial autonomy, and generals in his Beiyang Army by centralizing tax collection from local authorities.

Throughout the year, negotiations between British, Chinese and Tibetian representatives take place in Simla, British India. The British propose a convention that would put "Inner Tibet" (Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan) under Chinese jurisdiction, while "Outer Tibet" would have significant authority (de facto within the British sphere of influence). However, no agreement can be found regarding the Chinese-Tibetan and British-Tibetan borders, causing the Chinese to leave the negotiations, not signing anything. The British and Tibetans are able to find a compromise later on, with Britain ganing Arunachal Pradesh in the aftermath.

German post card issued after the war, depicting "The Struggle for Tsingtao"

Meanwhile, the Chinese revolutionary movement begins to fracture. While exiled in Japan, Sun establishes the Chinese Revolutionary Party on 8 July 1914, but many of his old revolutionary comrades, including Huang Xing and Hu Hanmin, refuse to join him, as all party members are forced to take an oath of personal loyalty to Sun, which many old revolutionaries regard as undemocratic and contrary to the spirit of the revolution. As a result, Sun becomes sidelined within the Republican movement during this period, however, a party bureau in Shanghai led by Chen Qimei and Chiang Kai-shek still pledges loyalty to him.

In late July, the Weltkrieg begins. With Germany preoccupied in Europe, Japan joins the Entente and seizes the German Kiautschou Bay concession in Shandong Province.

1915

In January, the Japanese set before the government in Beijing the so-called Twenty-One Demands, aimed at securing Japanese economic controls in railway and mining operations in Shandong, Manchuria, and Fujian. The The Japanese also press to have Yuan Shikai appoint Japanese advisors to key positions in the Chinese government. The Twenty-One Demands would have made China effectively a Japanese protectorate, violating the unwritten "Open-Door Policy" upheld by the US and Britain and therefore straining the Anglo-Japanese alliance. The Chinese public responds with a spontaneous nationwide boycott of Japanese goods.

Yuan Shikai, the self-proclaimed Hongxian Emperor (1915-1916)

The Beijing government rejects some of these demands but yields to the Japanese insistence on keeping the German Kiautschou Bay territory already in its possession. Beijing also recognizes Tokyo's authority over southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. Yuan's acceptance of the demands is extremely unpopular, but he continues his extremely authoritarian agenda nevertheless - culminating in Yuan, supported by his son Yuan Keding, declaring himself Emperor of a new Chinese Empire on 12 December.

This would soon send shockwaves throughout the Empire, especially alarming the governors in Southern China. Cai E, still interned in Beijing, manages to evade execution and flees back to Yunnan, where he, together with former Jiangxi governor Li Liejun and Yunnan General Tang Jiyao, forms the National Protection Army to fight Yuan Shikai and defend the Republic, declaring Yunnan independent on 25 December: It is the beginning of the National Protection War.

1916 (National Protection War, Death of Yuan)

Yunnan's declaration of independence also encourages other southern provinces (Guizhou, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Guangdong, Zhejiang, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Hunan) to denounce the government in Beijing throughout 1916. Among the defectors are most importantly Lu Rongting of Guangxi, progressive politician Liang Qichao as well as, surprisingly, several of Yuan's Beiyang generals (Feng Guozhang, Li Chun and even Duan Qirui), many of whom are already wary of his imperial coronation as well. When Yuan's most trusted allies as well as the foreign powers, including the Empire of Japan, pressure him to abdicate, he formally repudiates the monarchy and steps down as the first and last emperor of his dynasty in late March. He dies on 6 June, aged 56.

China in June 1916, during the later stages of the National Protection War

After Yuan's death, the political situation in China remains unclear; Sun Yat-sen returns from Japan to Shanghai, proclaiming the revival of the 1912 Provisional Constitution and arguing that Li Yuanhong, a general popular both among the Beiyang Army and the nationalists, to assume the office of President. This move is supported by the Southern governors, first and foremost Cai E, who revoke their independence declarations and rejoin the Beiyang government when Li is officially inaugurated on 7 June: Peace in China is restored and the North-South split is mended. Or is it?

While China is at least on paper united again, the National Protection War has left deep scars in China's geopolitical system: While the popular Li is the acting President, the true power in Northern China lays in the hands of Premier Duan Qirui, who indirectly continues Yuan's controversial centralization efforts. As a result, the once strong and united Beiyang Army begins to slowly descend into factionalism, with the Anhui Clique, based around Duan and his right hand man Xu Shuzheng dominating the government in Beijing and most of the North China Plains, the Zhili Clique around Vice President Feng Guozhang controlling most of Central & Eastern China and the slowly emerging Fengtian Clique of Zhang Zuolin, a former bandit who managed to expel all pro-Yuan Shikai governors out of Manchuria throughout 1916, being the most powerful force in the Chinese Northeast.

Cai E, the charismatic Yunnanese leader of the National Protection War

The problem of said factionalism is that the Beiyang government is not able to effectively crack down on future rebellions in the far-flung Southern and Eastern provinces anymore; de facto, government control only reaches up until the Yangtze in the south and to Shaanxi in the west. China slowly descends into decentralized warlordism, with the militaristic Beiyang Government controlling most of Northern China, charismatic generals like Cai E, Lu Rongting and Tang Jiyao ruling the revolutionary warlord states in the south and the de facto independent states of Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang as well as the Muslim Chinese Ma family domain controlling the vast deserts and mountains of Western China: It is the formal beginning of the Warlord Era.

In late November, Cai E, the most influential warlord of the National Protection Army-aligned warlord states in the south, dies of tuberculosis, causing a power vacuum in Southern China. He is succeeded by Tang Jiyao.

An Empire fragmented

1917 (Turmoil in the Republic)

With the Provisional Constitution reinstated, most provincial governors once again loyal and the parliament reconvened, stability and peace slowly return to China. However, in Beijing, an increasingly tense power struggle begins to unfold itself in the highest levels of the Beiyang Government: Premier Duan Qirui still refuses to acknowledge the 1912 constitution and finds frequent ways to circumnavigate it, angering President Li Yuanhong, Vice President Feng Guozhang, the second most important Beiyang military commander after Duan himself, and, once again, the governors in the south.

Tiger vs. Bear: The power struggle between Premier Duan Qirui and President Li Yuanhong dominated China throughout 1916/17

An especially hotly debated topic is China's future foreign policy, especially regarding the question of China's potential entry into the Weltkrieg. Since the outbreak of the war, China has remained neutral until Britain has urged all neutral countries to join the Allies in 1916, as a condemnation of Germany's use of unrestricted submarine warfare and violations of the Geneva Conventions. Premier Duan Qirui is particularly interested in joining the Entente as an opportunity to secure loans from Japan, of course with the goal to further expand the Beiyang Army (especially the elements within it loyal to him) to root out resistance in the south as well as his opponents in the Zhili and Fengtian Cliques alike.

However, President Li, Vice President Feng as well as the parliament are firmly opposed to such idea, wanting to focus on China's internal problems instead and mending the North-South divide. Impatient to gain parliament's approval through negotiation, Duan then resorts to bullying tactics with organized mobs. Enraged, Li dismisses Duan in May as Premier after parliament votes for his resignation. Duan denounces this move as illegal and retreats to Tianjin, where he, supported by most Beiyang generals, demands the dissolution of parliament: China stumbles into the next political crisis.

Zhang Xun, one of the last royalist generals in service of the Republic of China, was responsible for the failed Manchu Restoration of 1917

Li Yuanhong then summons General Zhang Xun to mediate the situation. Zhang Xun is a famous general once serving the Qing Court, one of the heroes of suppressing the 1913 Second Revolution after capturing Nanjing and the current military governor of Anhui (but unrelated to the Anhui Clique); so, essentially he is considered a perfect neutral mediator between the two hardened fronts. However, being a fervent royalist, he secretly has his mind on restoring Aisin Gioro Puyi, the former Emperor, to the Dragon Throne and is supplied with funds and weapons through the German legation, which is eager to keep China out of the war.

When Zhang arrives in Beijing with his soldiers, he occupies the city with German support, forcing Li to dissolve the Parliament and restoring the Qing Empire on 1 July. President Li flees to the Japanese legation, where he is forced by to reappoint Duan Qirui as Premier in an effort to save the Republic. After finding a compromise with Li, Duan leads the Beiyang Army into Beijing, quickly defeating Zhang's forces and spelling an end to the Manchu Restoration. The royalists are defeated, but Li's reputation is discredited and Duan Qirui stands once again as the most powerful man in China. Li is forced to resign as President and is replaced by Vice President Feng Guozhang of the Zhili Clique: The Beiyang Army now has total control over the government.

Upon his return, Duan refuses to restore parliament due to his unpleasant experiences with it in the past, arguing that his victory over the Manchu Restoration counted as a second Xinhai Revolution and set out to craft a new provisional senate which will draft the election rules for a new parliament. This senate cut the number of seats in the future parliament by nearly half. His opponents disagree, claiming that under Duan's argument, he should resign as the Premier's position cannot exist independently from parliament: Duan's decision would soon have consequences.

Chen Duxiu's "Youth Magazine" (which later changed its name to "New Youth"), became an important press organ of the New Culture Movement

In the end, China would never join the Entente, mainly because of strong opposition from Feng Guozhang, the inaction of the United States and Russia's collapse into civil war in late 1917. Nonetheless, Duan would try to negotiate financial loans with Japan in secret, in exchange for concessions, to fund the military buildup for the reconquest of the south. Around the same time, the New Culture Movement, which calls for the creation of a new Chinese culture based on global and western standards, especially democracy and science, begins to emerge in coastal urban centres, especially in cities with significant foreign presence. Major representatives are Hu Shih, Chen Duxiu, Cai Yuanpei and Li Dazhao.

Duan's complete disregard for the constitution causes Sun Yat-sen and his Chinese Revolutionary Party, Cen Chunxuan (an influential Southern Chinese intellectual and politician) and the deposed parliament members to establish a new government in Guangzhou, supported by the remnants of the National Protection Army, to counter Duan's abuse of power. This includes the Yunnan Clique of Tang Jiyao, the Guangxi Clique of Lu Rongting, the Guangdong Clique of Chen Bingkun, the Hunan Clique of Tan Yankai and the Guizhou Clique of Liu Xianshi: It is the beginning of the First Constitutional Protection Movement. Ironically, Sun Yat-sen's new government is not based on the Provisional Constitution as well; rather, it is de facto a military government and Sun is its Generalissimo.

Duan, enraged by yet another declaration of independence in the south, reacts by mobilizing the Beiyang Army and dispatches two renowned Zhili commanders southwards (of course with the goal of weakening Zhili influence in the north), triggering the Constitutional Protection War - one of these men is Wu Peifu, a young and ambitious military officer and a protégé of Cao Kun, the most important general of the Zhili Clique only second to Feng Guozhang. However, similar to Feng, Wu is opposed to fighting the Southern governors, supporting the Zhili Clique's leadership preference for peaceful reconciliation with the south - when he arrives in Hunan, he refuses to take up arms. This fiasco deeply embarrasses Duan in Beijing, leading to his formal resignation as Premier in November. Nevertheless, Duan still exercises enormous influence in Beijing due to the various military commanders and governors who are still loyal to him. During winter, North and South find themselves in a temporary armistice.

China in November 1917, in the midst of the First Constitutional Protection War

Meanwhile in the South, a similarly tense power struggle as in Beijing begins: Many Southern governors have become disillusioned with Sun's autocratic position and begin to plot against him: Besides the Navy, the Generalissimo Guards and twenty battalions of the Guangdong Army, Sun Yat-sen lacks strong support of military strength, and sometimes his orders are only effective in the Generalissmo Government in Guangzhou. In December, many important Southern military officers and political figures, most prominently Lu Rongting, Tang Jiyao and even Tang Shaoyi, a famous former Beiyang government politician and first Premier of the Republic in 1912/13, convene a conference, advocating for the removal of Sun, the recognition of Feng Guozhang's Northern presidency and formation a united government.

1917 also marks the beginning of the collapse of central authority in the Province of Sichuan. Sichuan has been a major confrontation zone between Beiyang and Southern troops since the Second Revolution, with foreign troops frequently invading or fighting in the region. During the National Protection War of 1916, Yunnanese troops of Cai E had occupied most of the province, but with Cai's death, these troops were withdrawn hastily, with Tang Jiyao leaving the pro-Southern army officer Dai Kan in Chengdu. Dai however is not recognized by the Beiyang Government, who appoint their own pro-Northern candidate, Liu Cunhou: Soon, a violent power struggle breaks out over the governorship of Sichuan, as the province has a high strategic value: Whoever controls Sichuan, is able to alter the fragile balance between north and south. In April 1917, Yunnan intervenes, triggering the First Yunnan-Sichuan War, which would continue throughout 1917. The result: Most of Sichuan plunges into anarchy, with dozens of small warlords emerging in the countryside. In the following years, the struggle over control of Sichuan would continue, with the Northern-appointed governors residing in Chengdu, the Southern-aligned one building up their power base near the Yunnanese border and regional warlords establishing themselves in cities such as Chongqing.

1918

President Xu Shichang, the successor of Zhili General Feng Guozhang; While technically non-aligned, his appointment was orchestrated by Duan Qirui and the Anhui Clique.

In early 1918, several high-ranking Anhui Clique generals and governors, among them most prominently Wang Yitang and Xu Shuzheng, form the so-called "Anfu Club", the political wing of the Anhui Clique. They exert so much pressure on President Feng Guozhang, that the latter is forced to reinstate Duan Qirui as Premier in March. Shortly after, the war against the South officially continues. The Constitutional Protection Army is engaged in battle in Hunan and the Beiyang Government manages to achieve a major victory, but once agagin, army commander Wu Peifu halts the further advance southwards, instead proclaiming that he is willing to enter into negotiations with the south.

Sun Yat-sen however is not interested in a peace settlement with the north, which is the total prove for Tang Jiyao, Lu Rongting and the other Southern warlords that further cooperation with Sun is not feasible anymore. Sun is ousted in early summer and the Guangzhou government is reorganized to elect a seven-member cabinet system, known as the "Governing Committee", headed by Cen Chunxuan as Chief Executive. Sun, once again side-lined by his political opponents and military strongmen, leaves for Shanghai following the reorganization with his most loyal supporters, among them Chiang Kai-shek and Wang Jingwei. Following Sun's removal, the Southern warlords agree to Wu's diplomatic overtures: A peaceful settlement between north and south is arranged later that year, and on paper, China is united once again.

In October, the term of President Feng Guozhang expires. In an attempt to placate the south, he agrees not to seek re-election provided Duan also vacate the office of premier on the same day. Duan, whose power base in Beijing has been constantly shrinking throughout 1918 due to the successful Zhili efforts to establish peace in the south, reluctantly agrees. Nonetheless, also largely due to the political influence of the Anfu Club, Duan manages to engineer the appointment of Xu Shichang as the next President: Xu, renowned constitutional monarchist and former Premier, is a civilian and therefore not directly tied to any of the Northern military cliques. Lacking any military power of his own, Xu therefore is bound to his political benefactors, the Anhui Clique. Via Xu, Duan hopes to delimit Zhili influence in the government while enlargening his own sphere of influence without actually holding any government posts.

1919

Ceremony in front of the Winter Palace of the Bogd Khan in Urga marking the abolition of Mongolian autonomy

In February the North and South start negotiations in Shanghai about China's political future. The Southerners demand that all ties with Japan are to be cut and that the further expansion of the Beiyang Army is to be stopped, but especially the continued influence of Duan Qirui & the Anfu Club makes these demands unacceptable for the Northern government. Discussions drag throughout the year and are closely observed by the foreign powers: The neutral United States of America even impose a weapon embargo against China, hoping that this would prevent further conflict in the future. The Germans throw their diplomatic support behind the Guangzhou Government and the Zhili Clique, hoping that the termination of all Sino-Japanese treaties signed between 1912 and 1919 (including the Twenty-One Demands) would finally free China from Japanese influence.

In late summer 1919, while the negotiations are still ongoing, Duan Qirui suddenly orders his right hand man Xu Shuzheng to invade Mongolia. He has numerous reasons for that: In secret, Duan is scared that the Shanghai Conference could spell an end to his far-reaching imperialist ambitions, considering the Southern governors, the Zhili Clique and most Western powers have turned against Japanese and Anhui influence in China for the sake of "peace", therefore, he plans to extend his sphere of influence northwards to be prepared for the worst. The Russian Civil War has left Mongolia without a foreign protector and Mongolia's long-running prime minister, Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren, died in April 1919, leaving the country's ruling elite deeply divided over a successor: the perfect opportunity for the Anhui Clique to intervene. By autumn, all of Outer Mongolia, de facto independent since 1911, including Tuva find themselves under the nominal control of the Chinese Republic.

Protests in Beijing after the exposure of the Anhui Clique's close ties to Japan

In the end however, this controversial decision would have drastic consequences for Duan. In early October 1919, documents leaked at the Versailles Peace Conference, held by the German Empire in occupied France, expose the Nishihara Loans granted by Japan to Duan Qirui between 1917 and 1918, also revealing that Duan personally promised Japan far-reaching concessions in Shandong (including the German posession of Kiautschou) in exchange for further loans. Protests break out in Beijing, but die down after a few days - however, even worse, the scandal would cause an immediate breakdown of the negotiations in Shanghai, with the Southern warlords leaving after learning of the vast corruption the government has been involved in in the last few months - even though it had mainly been the Anhui Clique who was responsible for the dubious agreements with the Japanese. Many accuse Duan's invasion of Mongolia to be orchestrated by Japan as well, with the secret goal to extend Japanese influence into Central Asia.

The Zhili Clique would promptly draw conclusions from this fiasco, planning to decimate Duan's last remaining influence once and for all. Tensions between the Zhili and Anhui Cliques have long been boiling in the background, and the sudden occupation of Mongolia as well as the Nishihara Scandal and the subsequent failure of the Shanghai Conference would be the straw that breaks the camel's back. With the old Feng Guozhang ailing and having withdrawn to his retirement home in Beijing (where he would die on 12 December 1919), two new figures emerge as the leaders of the Zhili Clique: Cao Kun, famous general, trusted associate of the late Feng and, since 1916, Governor of the province of Zhili, and Wu Peifu, the Zhili general who had been responsible for ending the Constitutional Protection War in mid-1918. Cao gets into contact with the Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin, leader of the relatively small Fengtian Clique, which is still considered to be a second-class force among the three Northern Beiyang Cliques, while Wu meets representatives from Yunnan and Guangxi at Hengyang, where they sign a treaty entitled "Rough Draft of the National Salvation Allied Army" (救国同盟军草约) in November: A new major alliance begins to form within China, this time targeting the Anhui Clique and Duan Qirui.

China in November 1919, between the Chinese invasion of Mongolia and the Zhili-Anhui War

Around the same time, Sun Yat-sen's Chinese Revolutionary Party is at its absolute low point. Most old guard party members are dead (like Huang Xing, who had died in 1916 from cirrhosis, or Chen Qimei, who had been assassinated by a low-ranking Beiyang Army officer called Zhang Zongchang) and the people who would actually be in a powerful enough situation to contest Northern rule, namely the Southern governors, have expelled Sun the year prior, refuse any kind of cooperation with the CRP and now strife for reunfication with the north. Under the pressure of his remaining loyal supporters (among them Chiang Kai-shek), Sun convenes a large conference on 10 October in the French Concession in Shanghai and formally reorganised the CRP into the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) on 10 October, openly operating under the concept of "national revolution" and expanding the membership of the party, considering the lack of popular support for the CRP's actions in various parts of the country. Sun aims to sway his former friends in the south with that, hoping that it would allow him to return to Guangzhou sooner or later to continue his struggle against the Beiyang Government.

Meanwhile in Europe, the Treaty of Versailles is signed on 6 November, de facto ending the Weltkrieg after more than five years of fighting. As per the terms of the treaty, Germany acquires all French posessions in China (Guangzhouwan, the settlements in Shanghai, Tianjin, Hankou and Shamian as well as the French-owned Kunming–Haiphong railway in Yunnan) and the Belgian concession in Tianjin. Austria-Hungary would later acquire the Italian concession in Tianjin. However, the situation in East Asia would remain unresolved: With Japanese troops in Kiautschou and their claims backed by treaty with China, the Japanese delegation would refuse to withdraw from the German posessions in China and the Pacific during the peace negotiations in September and October. Seeing this insistence as a potential obstacle to the very much desired end of the war, the British delegation does not support the Japanese motions to retain Kiautschou after German refusal in the first round of negotiations. Feeling isolated and insulted, the Japanese delegation walks out of the conference without signing any peace treaty (therefore remaining formally at war with the Central Powers) and the government in Tokyo officially denounces the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

A United States Embassy's document concerning the Versailles Peace Conference (needs to be updated!!!!)

The Warring Cliques

1920

Another local conflict breaks out in Sichuan. The power struggle in 1917 had been won by the pro-Northern candidate Liu Cunhou at first (with the pro-Southern candidate Dai Kan being encircled and killed) - however, Liu's rule would not last long, as he himself was ousted in early 1918 by Xiong Kewu, a local warlord from Chongqing and a former associate of Cai E. Xiong had been supported by the Yunnanese troops of Tang Jiyao - however, even after the war was won and most of Sichuan was under the control of Xiong, Tang's troops were not willing to evacuate, still occupying large parts of Southern Sichuan. Eventually, Xiong started negotiations with Yunnan, to no avail: In early 1920, the situation escalates, triggering the Second Yunnan-Sichuan War. After only a few weeks, Chengdu finds itself under the siege of Yunnanese troops under Lü Chao, but Xiong manages to reconcile with his former enemy Liu Cunhou: By the end of the year, the province is back under local control and collapses back into infighting.

In April, Cao Kun convenes a large meeting in Baoding with representatives from the provinces of Zhili, Hubei, Henan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Lianoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, secretly forming the "Eight Provinces Anti-Anhui Alliance". At this point, almost all of China, the south and the north alike, has conspired against the Anhui Clique. One month later Cao orders Wu to relocate his troops, still stationed in Hunan, from Hengyang up to Baoding. In early July, the Zhili Clique pressures President Xu Shishang to remove Xu Shuzheng from the post of commander-in-chief of the Northwest Frontier Defense, drastically limiting Anhui influence in Mongolia and Northern China in general. Deeply angered, Duan Qirui forces the President to dismiss both Cao and Wu from their high-ranking positions, even though there is legally no possible way to actually remove them from their posts. At that point, everybody is aware that conflict is certain: Both the Anhui Clique and the anti-Anhui alliance begin to mobilize their troops, triggering the Zhili-Anhui War.

China in October 1920:The country has fractured further, with Mongolia and Sichuan suffering from civil war, Shanxi declaring its neutrality in the struggle for Beijing and Chen Jiongming and the KMT expelling Lu Rongting and Cen Chunxuan from Guangzhou when the latter enter into reunification talks with the Zhili Clique.

While the Southern governors had declared their loyalty to the Zhili Clique the year prior, they would not actually take up arms against the Anhui, so the war is mostly limited to the North China Plains, especially around Beijing, Tianjin and Baoding, mostly along the major railway lines. Small clashes also take place in Shanghai. The Zhili Clique emerges victorious after a brief conflict; Beijing is captured, most Anhui troops are wiped out, the Anfu Club is dissolved and Mongolia plunges into anarchy without proper Chinese protection, with Chinese troops without clear leadership terrorizing the Mongolian population and pillaging cities. Duan Qirui and Xu Shuzeng both flee to the Japanese concession in Tianjin. In the aftermath, the Anhui Clique is practically dissolved; a few members defect either to the Zhili or the Fengtian Cliques, most of the Anhui governors would be removed from their posts throughout 1920/21, only the Anhui governors in Zhejiang and Shandong would endure until the mid-1920s. Wu Peifu is nationally credited as the strategist behind the Zhili clique's victory, while the Fengtian clique provided token support. Both cliques form a joint government in Beijing.

With Mongolia in anarchy after the Anhui collapse, the power balance in the region begins to shift. Two notorious Russian warlords in Transbaikal, Grigory Semyonov and his subordinate Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, both of which are known mongolophiles, see this as an opportunity to expand their little warlord fiefdom, which is mostly sponsored by the Japanese as an effort to weaken the Russian White Movement, southwards. Under Semyonov's orders, Sternberg crosses the Russian-Mongolian border in October 1920 and moves south-westwards, towards the Mongol capital, Urga. He is supported by Mongol nobles who seek independence from the Anhui remnants, who still occupy and ravage the country. Especially the Bogd Khan, who secretly sent Ungern his blessing for expelling the Chinese from Mongolia, hopes that his authority will be fully restored after the Chinese withdrawal.

With the Zhili victory in the north, many are sure that now peace will finally prevail in China once and for all. Lu Rongting and Cen Chunxuan, still the most influential warlords in Southern China, use the Zhili victory as a pretext to explore unification with the north. This move is condemned by many Southern politicians and regional warlords however, who fear that renunification would mean a return to the old authoritarian central government, the revocation of all autonomy and the renewed suspension of the rightful Provisional Constitution, even though these fears are largely unjustified. Supported by the Yunnan Clique of Tang Jiyao, who is not really interested in unification as well anymore and instead wants to expand his power base on the south, the Guangzhou parliament relocates to Kunming.

Chen Jiongming and Sun Yat-sen's fragile alliance would prevent Northern and Southern China from reunification, triggering the Second Constitutional Protection Movement in 1921

Sun Yat-sen's Kuomintang, still exiled in Shanghai, uses the opportunity and forges an alliance with Chen Jiongming, a small-scale Eastern Guangdong-based warlord subordinated to Cen Chunxuan and an old associate of Sun during the Xinhai Revolution. The goal: expel Cen and Lu from Guangzhou before reunification with the north is officially achieved. In early August, Chen officially declares revolt on Cen and Lu and drives their forces out of Guangzhou (indirectly supported by Tang Jiyao, who does not do anything to protect his comrades), allowing Sun and the Kuomintang to return by the end of November. They establish a new rival government in the south, continuing the North-South divide. Cen Chunxuan relocates to Nanning, the power base of Lu Rongting in Guangxi, for the time being, proclaiming that he will take revenge and return to Guangzhou soon, but eventually retires due to his high age shortly after.

1921

In early January, the Southern Parliament can finally move from Kunming back to Guangzhou. The Kuomintang soon would once again emerge as the most powerful force within parliament. With Cen Chunxuan and Lu Rongting out of the picture, there are only three persons that could possibly challenge Sun's rule now: Tang Jiyao, the governor of Yunnan, Wu Tingfang, an old guard revolutionary and Southern Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs in his late 70s, and Chen Jiongming, who has expressed his explicit support for Sun's cause. With Tang busy in Yunnan, Wu ailing and Chen loyal, Sun's power remains uncontested: That is why in April, the National Assembly dissolves the military government and elects Sun Yat-sen "Extraordinary President", making him de facto dictator of the Guangzhou Government once again. However, the new Guangzhou Government, without any foreign recognition, is beset with questions of legitimacy as its form exists outside of the constitution it is mandated to protect.

The young Tang Jiyao, eternal warlord of Yunnan (1913-1921, 1922 - ), always has been known as the quintessential pragmatist, loosely cooperating with the Guangzhou Government, trading with opium and establishing his power base around the drastically overstretched military: This would become his downfall in 1921, when Tang was couped by his own subordinates.

Chen Jiongming, who has significant autonomy in Eastern Guangdong under Sun's new government, invites anarchists, syndicalists and federalists to the province, much to the dismay of Sun. The relationship between Chen and Sun begins to slowly deteriorate throughout the year. One of the radicals invited by Chen Jiongming is Peng Pai, a young anarchist, who soon launches a peasant movement in the region of Hai-Lu-Feng under the auspices of Chen.

Meanwhile, Tang Jiyao is slowly losing his firm grip on Yunnan as forces in the shadows begin to conspire against him: Many local army commanders have grown dissatisfied with Tang's rule, who frequently starts pointless aggressive wars against neighboring provinces, especially the mountainous Sichuan, being responsible for the deaths of countless Yunnanese soldiers. Already in late 1920, after the disastrous Second Yunnan-Sichuan War, high-ranking military officer Gu Pinzhen secretly had met with fellow commanders to plan a mutiny against Tang. In February 1921, these plans are executed and Tang is ousted by a military coup in Kunming, forcing him to flee to Guangzhou, with his last remaining loyal troops under Long Yun retreating to Southern Yunnan and Guangxi.

Much to the displease of Tang however, Sun Yat-sen and the KMT are quite sympathetic to the new warlord (as Tang's unreliability and unpredictability always had been problem), even confirming Gu as the new rightful governor - this would strain the relations with Tang in the long term. Sun would try to enter into enters into talks with Tang, offering him high-ranking positions in the Guangzhou Government to compensate him for his loss, but Tang declines, instead getting into contact with Chen Jiongming in Eastern Guangdong. Chen convinces Tang to return to Yunnan to oust Gu and reestablish himself as the rightful warlord of Yunnan in an effort to weaken the KMT's increasingly firm grip on the Southern provinces. He also promises Tang military support and slowly begins to recruit him for his own federalist agenda, unlike Sun, whose ideas promote Chinese Unitarism.

With Tang potentially on his side, Chen sets up a plan to further increase his influence in the south. His plan: invading Guangxi to expel the last remaining pro-Northern remnants around Lu Rongting to claim the province for the Guangzhou Government. Of course the secret goal is to secretly expand his own sphere of control to keep Sun and the KMT in check. However, the plans are eventually dropped due to the arrival of German warships and colonial troops in formerly French Tonkin, which had been granted to them as per the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Fearing a European intervention because of large troop movements along the unstable Sino-Vietnamese border, he refrains from invading the province (The historical second Guangxi-Guangdong war does not break out and Lu Rongting remains in power).

The 8th Jebtsundamba, known as the Bogd Khan, was restored to the throne of the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia by Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg in February 1921

Meanwhile, in Mongolia, Urga has fallen to Sternberg's troops and most Anhui garrisons on the countryside have surrendered, fled or been completely decimated. During the Battle of Urga in February, Ungern's special detachment of Tibetans, Mongols, Buryats, and Russians rescues the Bogd Khan from house arrest and restore him to his rightful throne. Chinese troops, civilian administrators and military commanders flee northwards and massacre any Mongolian civilians they encountere along the road from Urga to the Russian border. Following the capture of the city, Sternberg would order the destruction of Chinese stores in the town and the execution of all Jews: A secret police is set up and begins to hunt down suspected Bolshevik and Chinese sympathizers and soon, all of Mongolia is under White Russian control. Only a few weeks later, with the White victory in the Russian Republic, the forces of Alexander Kolchak move eastwards to crack down on the various Cossack warlord states in the Far East, most prominently Semyonov's: Semyonov calls his former subordinate to come to his aid, but Sternberg never responds, leading to the capture of Chita and the escape of Semyonov to Manchuria. Sternberg drops his former ambitions in Russia and solely focuses on his new power base in Mongolia.

With Japan never signing the Treaty of Versailles, the war in the East inofficially continues, although permanently stuck in a frozen conflict. While German troops and ships begin to gradually arrive in Indochina, the German Chinese concessions and Pacific colonies are still in the grasp of the Empire of Japan, and as Japan stands to be the dominant naval power in the Western Pacific, a direct engagement between German and Japanese ships seems more than unlikely. At the same time, Japan is now internationally isolated and, since the collapse of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, without a clear ally. While this may not be an immediate concern, there is little question that Japan will eventually need to face both a recovered Imperial Germany and the rising industrial power of the United States of America.

An opportunity to solve the uncertain conflict arises when the the newly-elected American McAdoo administration calls for the reconstitution of the lapsed Six-Power Consortium, which during its existence had monopolized foreign loans and investments to the Chinese central government. On paper, the purpose of reviving this 'China Consortium' is to promote peaceful collaboration amongst world powers and contribute to the economic development of East Asia. In reality, the agreement risks undermining Japan's already strong hand on the continent, especially if Japan is excluded and left to compete with the consortium as a whole. Sensing the true nature of the proposition, London and Moscow support Washington, and Berlin expresses its own interest. Concerned, but realizing that an agreement could both avoid isolation and firmly guarantee at least some of Japan's gains in China, Tokyo agrees to negotiate on the condition that Manchuria be excluded from the revived consortium, permitting Japan continued monopoly of the Manchurian economy. However, the existing technical state of war between Germany and Japan still complicates the initiative, and neither side will accept any agreement that may appear to be a recognition of the others' claims to the Kiautschou Concession.

Description of the Second China Consortium and Tsingtao Accord in Treaties of the World (needs to be updated!!!!)

After months of negotiations, in early October 1921, an agreement for a return to the pre-war territorial status-quo is reached. Japan's 'existing special interests' are explicitly excluded from the activities of the now-called Second China Consortium. Japan and Germany sign a separate peace treaty a month later, the Tsingtao Accord, in which no reference to the Kiautschou Concession appears, while Japan's influence in Manchuria is recognized by Germany: In essence, Japan and Germany trade Kiautschou & the German Pacific Islands for the recognition of Japanese interests in Northern China. In Japan this diplomatic deal, trading all conquests from Germany for verbal recognition of long-established interests, proves to be unpopular, and the agreement is derided as a "Second Triple Intervention" by opponents, in reference to the humiliating experience of 1895 where similarly conquered territory was denied to Japan by a diplomatic intervention from Russia, Germany and France. In mid-November, as the last Japanese troops evacuate the city of Tsingtau and the surrounding areas, the Takahashi government collapses under condemnation and public pressure.

1922

In February, Tang Jiyao gathers his forces to retake Yunnan, supported by Chen Jiongming, despite Sun Yat-sen's attempts to appease him. The forces of Gu Pinzhen are decimated in a decisive battle; while in posession of a much larger army, Gu's forces are disorganized and plagued by factionalism. With the support of local bandits, Tang leads a raid on Gu's headquarters and executes him for high treason. The remnants of Gu Pinzhen’s loyal men, under the command of Zhu De, Yang Ximin, Jin Handing and Fan Shisheng, manage to evade capture and execution and flee into Sichuan to the north. Some of them would eventually go to Guangzhou (and later on Shanghai), ending up in the service of Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang, while Zhu De would leave for Europe, becoming acquainted with left-leaning Chinese émigré circles. By mid-March, Tang has reestablished himself as governor and warlord of Yunnan.

The new power duo in Beijing: Cao Kun of the Zhili Clique and Zhang Zuolin of the Fengtian Clique. At that point, all of Northern China is controlled by the military: The positions of President (still Xu Shichang) & Premier (Jin Yunpeng) have become virtually powerless.

Meanwhile in Beijing, where the Zhili and Fengtian Cliques rule over the weak and unstable Beiyang Government in an uneasy coalition since the end of the Zhili-Anhui War, tensions begin to arise, with Cao Kun and Zhang Zuolin beginning to mistrust each other stronger and stronger with every day. Over the course of 1921, the Zhili had vastly expanded their influence in Central and Eastern China, taking control over the formerly Anhui-held provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi, bolstering their sphere of influence over most of China. The Fengtian Clique had not been so lucky; while they had managed to gain control over the province of Rehe in late 1921, further territorial expansion would be denied to them due to Manchuria's geographical peripheral location. Zhang Zuolin soon realises the problematic situation Manchuria finds itself in: With an ever growing Zhili Clique to the south, a slowly stabilizing Russian Republic to the north and an increasingly imperious Japan to the east, the Fengtian Clique is stuck between a rock and a hard place.

After the fall of the Anhui Clique, Japan had dropped their backing for Duan Qirui, now a spent force, and instead decided to throw their support behind the Fengtian Clique for continued Japanese economic and political influence in China. Therefore, the Japanese of course are not very happy to see Zhang Zuolin losing more and more of his power at the hands of the Zhili, as reduced Fengtian influence would also mean less Japanese influence in China. For the leadership in Tokyo, there is only one solution: bringing down the Zhili Clique before it grows too strong. Therefore a war is needed, but how to provoke a war without appearing as a warmonger and aggressor, considering the Zhili have the diplomatic support of the United States, Germany and Britain? Well, by relying on a a true Chinese classic: triggering direct conflict through a minor diplomatic incident.

China in April 1922, on the eve of the First Zhili-Fengtian War

Said incident is caused when the Fengtian Clique removes the Zhili-backed Premier Jin Yunpeng from his office and replaces him with their own candidate, Liang Shiyi, without getting prior consent of their coalition partner. The Zhili Clique is not pleased and Liang, a former suppoeter of Yuan Shikai and member of the so-called "Communications Clique", a powerful interest group of politicians, bureaucrats, technocrats and businessmen, soon finds himself being accused of "selling out the country to Japan" and the Fengtian Clique of "pandering to imperialist powers". Due to the pressure of Wu Peifu and several Zhili governors, Liang is eventually forced out of his office with devastating consequences: Zhang Zuolin announces that he is more than willing to solve the conflict by force - he secures the diplomatic support of Japan and the Guangzhou Government and deploys his troops on 10 April 1922, marching towards Tianjin and triggering the First Zhili-Fengtian War. One Fengtian army commander would rise to prominence for the first time during this conflict: Yang Yuting, chief of staff of the Fengtian Army.

In a repeat of the earlier Zhili–Anhui War, the Fengtian Clique, around 120,000 men strong, plans to attack the Zhili, only 100,000 men strong, on two fronts by approaching from Tianjin to Beijing from the east and from Inner Mongolia to Baoding, the Zhili Clique's headquarters, from the west. The Zhili Clique's troops are spread all around Beijing; the sudden attack of the Fengtian Clique catches them off guard and a retreat to Hejian and Renqiu is ordered by Wu Peifu, commander-in-chief of the Zhili forces. However, a further advance of the Fengtian Army can be prevented by using heavy shelling of the frontline, causing thousands of casualties. In the heat of the moment, a Zhili surprise counterattack is launched in May and Wu Peifu's troops manage to outflank the Fengtian Clique, accompanied by a high-ranking Fengtian commander defecting to the Zhili. Only yet another counterattack, this time by the Fengtian, manages to prevent the front from collapsing entirely. Several Fengtian commanders in the east refuse to continue the advance into Zhili territory, and in danger of being cut off, Zhang Zuolin orders a general retreat to avoid total annihilation. His son Zhang Xueliang leads his men back into Manchuria.

Shanhai Pass in Qinhuangdao, constructed during the Ming Dynasty against the Manchu to the north, would mark the border between the Fengtian & Zhili Cliques since 1922

Now going on a full counteroffensive, the Zhili Clique quickly sweeps through Fengtian-occupied territory in the Zhili province, defeating the remaining Fengtian detachments and eventually recapturing Tianjin, with the local Fengtian garrison withdrawing to Luanzhou after a decisive defeat. At this time, it becomes obvious that the war is over: The Fengtian Clique is severely weakened, with 20,000 men dead, 10,000 deserted and 40,000 captured by the Zhili Clique. Wu Peifu has made a name for himself as one of China’s foremost military minds during the conflict. European diplomats, first and foremost the Germans and British, can convince Cao Kun that the British consul at Luanzhou could broker a peace treaty between the Zhili and Fengtian to terminate hostilities. Negotiations start on a British warship anchored off the coast of Qinghuangdao, with the consul suggesting that the new border between China proper and Fengtian-controlled Manchuria should be Shanhaiguan. On 18 June, an official peace treaty is signed, ending the First Zhili–Fengtian War with a resounding Zhili victory. For one more time, people are sure that this time peace and prosperity will ensure in China under the lead of the Zhili Clique - but once again, it should come different.

After the end of the war, there is a strong movement to reunite the northern and southern governments by having both Sun Yat-sen and Xu Shichang, the presidents of the Guangzhou & Beiyang government respectively, resign their rival presidencies in favor of restoring the compromise candidate Li Yuanhong to the presidency, as the popular figurehead of a united Republic of China. Down in the south, Chen Jiongming wholeheartly supports this idea, hoping that under Li he would be finally able to properly apply his federalist ideas - but Sun and the KMT reject, claiming that Li would nothing more than a powerful puppet of the military, just like he had been in 1916/17. Instead, Sun proposes a so-called Northern Expedition, a military campaign towards Beijing with the eventual goal to subjugate the corrupt, military-controlled Beiyang Government and establish KMT rule over all of China: On their way up north, the troops of the Guangzhou Government (later to be known as National Revolutionary Army, or in short, NRA) would root out the deeply-entrenched warlords, finally freeing China from lawlessness, decadence and corruption once and for all. The first target would be Lu Rongting in neighboring Guangxi, and after that the great march into Zhili territory would be started via Hunan, Jiangxi and Hubei, eventually reaching Beijing, and from there on maybe even further: towards Manchuria, Mongolia, Central and Western China, until the Blue Sky, White Sun, and a Wholly Red Earth would finally fly over all of China.

China in August 1922, after the First Zhili-Fengtian War and the expulsion of the Kuomintang from Guangzhou

Chen however disagrees and instead wants to pursue a peaceful unification of China, and this eventually proves to be the final straw that breaks his uneasy alliance with Sun. When the Beiyang Government officially approaches Chen during summer and recognizes him as the legitimate Northern-aligned governor of all of Guangdong, he decides to abandon Sun and swears his loyalty to the Beiyang government. In Guangzhou, an anti-KMT revolt is launched and forces loyal to Chen begin to attack Sun's residence as well as his office. Under gunfire, he and most of his most loyal men are forced to flee the city, embarking on a British ship to Shanghai: It is the de facto end of the Second Constitutional Protection Movement. With Sun gone, Chen can finally begin to build a model province in Guangdong to act as an example to others, furthering his goal of a federal China. Lu Rongting in Guangxi would also throw his support behind the Beiyang Government.

Meanwhile in the north, the Zhili Clique restores the legal system, reopens the National Assembly and finally forces the unpopular President Xu Shichang out of office, indeed reinstating Li Yuanhong as it had been promised. Li only accepts with the private assurances that warlord forces around Beijing be disbanded; while the Zhili Clique agrees, they would never honor their promise. Sun Yat-sen had been right: Li soon turns into an even powerless puppet than before, in reality most of the government is run by Cao Kun and Wu Peifu. With the Zhili Clique turning more and more corrupt, the Fengtian Clique in the north slowly begins to reorganize itself. Now only left with the provinces of Fengtian, Heilongjiang and Jilin (Rehe and Chahar had been lost to the Zhili following the armistice at Qinghuangdao), Zhang Zuolin begins to build up Manchuria as a well-defended fortress and reestablishes the mighty Fengtian Army from scratch with secret Japanese support, already preparing for a war against the Zhili in the near future.

Sun Yat-sen and his wife Soong Ching-ling in Shanghai following the KMT's expulsion from Guangzhou, November 1922

Sun Yat-sen, arriving in Shanghai in August, begins to establish the new Kuomintang headquarters in the Shanghai International Settlement, realizing that the failure of both of his attempts of a counter-government in the south had mainly failed due to his his overreliance on the military forces of others. He comes to the conclusion that he would need his own loyal soldiers if he ever wants his still hypothetical "Northern Expedition" to happen. With the help of his closest associates, which are at the time Chiang Kai-shek, Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin (Liao Zhongkai, an old guard revolutionary like Sun, had been captured by Chen and therefore is not present), Sun manages to get the secret diplomatic support of the Commune of France, mainly due to two reasons:

• The influx of socialists into the party (most prominently New Cultural Movement activist Li Dazhao) and the strong position of Sun's left-leaning associate Wang Jingwei make entryist policies the most promising method of spreading the revolution in Asia.
• The recent revolt of Chen makes a Zhili-dominated China very likely and as the Zhili Clique's backers are the European imperialist powers, Germany and Britain, France's idelogical enemies, this is deemed unacceptable by the syndicalist leadership in Paris, which is looking to assert themselves more on the international stage after winning their civil war.

Other left-leaning ideologies begin to slowly emerge in China as well, most prominently the fledgling Syndicalist movement: Chen Duxiu, another important intellectual who had made himself a name during the New Cultural Movement, had been exposed to Western syndicalist via European, especially French, agitators in the Shanghai International Settlement, slowly establishing himself as the uncontested leader of the fringe Chinese Syndicalist Party. With China being a primarily agrarian nation, syndicalism would however remain mostly limited to the large, often European-influenced metropolises on the coast.

Rise of the White Sun

1923

In Yunnan, Tang Jiyao's position is manifested once again. However, in his absence, his once firm grip on the neighboring province of Guizhou has slowly slipped off; Guizhou had been ruled by a clique of pro-Yunnanese military officers under the lead of Liu Xianshi since Tang's invasion of the province in 1912, but over time, an influential organisation of liberal, pro-KMT reformers under Liu's nephew Wang Wenhua had supplanted the governor's authority and would coup him in late 1920, when Yunnan was preoccupied with fighting the Sichuanese. Wang's coup would succeed and Liu fled the country - but Wang would be shot by one of his subordinates shortly after, with Guizhou falling into infighting just like Sichuan, but nominally swearing their loyalty to Tang and the Guangzhou Government alike.

Yuan Zuming, Governor of Guizhou (1922-1925), would be eventually deposed by Tang Jiyao due to his ties to the Zhili Clique - First, however, Tang would focus on ousting Lu Rongting to the south

By early 1923, Yuan Zuming, said former subordinate of Wang, rules over Guizhou; a reluctant supporter of Tang, his connections to Beijing and the Zhili (who financially supported his takeover of the province in early 1922) are more than obvious and Tang is aware that Yuan is not to be trusted in the long-term. Tang's brother, Tang Jiyu, proposes to expel Yuan and restore full Yunnanese control over Guizhou, but Tang in the end decides against that and instead proposes another, quite controversial plan: advancing southwards into Guangxi, with the goal of expelling Lu Rongting's pro-Zhili forces from Nanning, and from there, maybe even the capture of Guangzhou from Chen Jiongming. Tang's secret ambition is to restore Sun Yat-sens Kuomintang Government in the aftermath - however, due to his forces de facto controlling both Guangxi and the capital city of Guangzhou, the true power would lay in the hands of Tang himself, who would finally arise as the most powerful warlord in the south.

In Guangxi, Lu Rongting's power had been crumbling for quite some time. The province had not seen conflict for years and the army had not been dispatched since the war against Chen Jiongming in 1920, but Lu's pro-Beiyang stance had alienated many of his subordinates over time, especially the ones who had sympathies for Sun Yat-sen's KMT. Most prominently among them: Li Zongren, a local army commander who had distinguished himself as a brave fighter during the Constitutional Protection War in Hunan in early 1918. After his return to Guangxi, Li had gradually expanded his influence on the countryside under the pretense of suppressing bandit activities and would eventually form his own clique loyal to him within Lu Rongting's Guangxi Clique: the so-called "New Guangxi Clique", very similar to Wang Wenhua's reformist organisation in Guizhou. When Tang Jiyao eventually invades Guangxi in April, triggering the Yunnan-Guangxi War, Li would openly declare revolt against his superior, an important factor which would lead to the downfall of Lu Rongting's "Old Guangxi Clique".

KMT-aligned Guangxi warlord Li Zongren would play an important role during the Yunnan-Guangxi War, when he revolted against his superior Lu Rongting.

After the capture of Nanning, Lu Rongting would flee temporarily to Shanghai, with his remaining loyal forces scattering all over Southern Guizhou and Hunan. As Tang does not have the capability to fully control Guangxi himself, he surrenders Nanning to Li Zongren's men, establishing a pro-Yunnanese and pro-KMT military administration in the city. Instead, Tang focuses his efforts entirely on capturing the city of Guangzhou. Chen Jiongming already awaits him on the border after being informed about troops movements in Guangxi, but eventually retreats to Huizhou, approximately 110 kilometres to the east of Guangzhou, when he realizes the the numerical superiority of the invaders. Following Chen's expulsion, Sun Yet-sen returns from Shanghai and rebuilds his KMT government in Guangzhou - already for the third time at this point. During his time in Shanghai, he has become more amenable to the left wing of the party due to the French aid which would later contribute to his consolidation of power in the south.

Sun's goal this time is not to overly rely on neighboring, opportunistic warlords, but to build his own power base from scratch. For that however, experienced, trained soldiers and military officers who would never question their loyalty to the generalissimo and the Kuomintang are needed: The aim of the Guangzhou Government is therefore the establishment of a modern military academy, akin to the famous ones in Baoding and Kunming, which brought forth the crème de la crème of modern China's standing armies' officer corps and general staffs. With secret French financial and diplomatic support, the so-called Whampoa Military Academy is established on Changzhou Island in Guangzhou; it would open its gates in early May of the following year. Apart from the newly gained French funds, Sun Yat-sen would also make use of gambling and opium trade to finance the construction of the academy and eliminate corruption within his own government's ranks.

China in October 1923, after the return of the KMT to Guangzhou & Cao Kun's inauguration as Northern President. The Zhili Clique is at its greatest extent at this point - and would collapse into infighting just a few months later.

Completely different circumstances are prevailing in Beijing in the meantime: Zhili corruption is becoming more and more rampant and obvious, especially under the lead of the increasingly power-hungry and arbitrary Cao Kun. Even though President and Premier are already puppets of the Zhili Clique, Cao has even greater ambitions: He wants to become President himself. In June, he sends his men to intimidate acting President Li Yuanhong at the latter's residence; Li tries to flee to Tianjin, taking the presidential seal with him, but is abducted at the train station and forced to hand in the seal as well as to sign his resignation. To gain the support of the National Assembly, Cao's subordinates begin to openly bribe and threaten members of parliament, severely disreputing and discrediting the legitmacy of the Beiyang Government. In October, Cao Kun would be inaugurated as President.

Shortly after, a new Chinese constitution is passed by the assembly, colloquially known as the "Cao Kun Constitution" or the "Bribery Constitution". Prior to that, the old 1912 Provisional Constitution of Sun Yat-sen had still been in place. Hastily drafted by the assembly, the new constitution is deemed the most democratic and progressive in Chinese history yet, but like previous charters it is de facto ignored completely, as the Zhili Clique continues to exert total influence over the government apparatus. The increasingly autocratic development of the Zhili leadership soon causes dissension among Cao's own men: His most prominent adversary would become his former protegé, famous army commander and by far the most influential figure within the Beiyang Army, Wu Peifu. With the Zhili Clique slowly splitting into two factions, Cao's Baoding Clique and Wu's Luyoang Clique, rumours of of an impending power struggle within the Zhili clique become loud; however, in the end it is the threat posed by the Fengtian Clique to the north that would keep the clique together - at least for the time being.

1924

The 1st National Congress of the Kuomintang in Guangzhou

Between 20 and 30 January, the 1st National Congress of the Kuomintang is held in Guangzhou. It is attended by almost 200 delegates and headed by Chairman Sun Yat-sen and the KMT Presidium, consisting of Hu Hanmin, Wang Jingwei, Lin Sen, Li Dazhao and Xie Jiu. High-ranking Communard advisors are also present. During the congress, the Central Executive Committee of the Guangzhou Government is elected and Sun Yat-sen's three major policies (the close cooperation with the Commune of France, the continued struggle against imperialism/feudalism and the the alliance with minor leftist organisations throughout the country, like the Chinese Syndicalist Party or Peng Pai's anarchists) are officially confirmed.

In Sichuan, another internal power struggle is raging. Regionalist warlord Xiong Kewu is still (at least nominally) in power, however, his former adversary-turned-associate Liu Cunhou was forced to step down in 1921 after mutineers within Liu's own warlord forces (Liu would later serve as a military commander in the Shaanxi-Sichuan border region). That however did not mean that Xiong's position was automatically secured; while he nominally sweared his loyalty to the Northern government throughout the early 1920s, it soon became clear that he only did that to maintain his comfortable autonomous fiefdom in mountainous Sichuan. In 1923, the Zhili Clique would get in contact with one of Xiong's ambitious subordinates, the Chongqing-based warlord Liu Xiang, who had become the successor of Liu Cunhou in 1921, and appointed him the new Beiyang-backed governor of Sichuan instead; soon, factionalism would tear the province apart.

Now, in early 1924, Sichuan has evolved into a hotbed of all different political thoughts. Xiong Kewu, enraged about his betrayal by the Zhili, instead throws his support behind the Kuomintang, attending the congress in Guangzhou and proclaiming his will to unite his province under the red banner of the KMT. In the meanwhile, the Zhili would appoint yet another governor, the influential Chengdu-based Yang Sen, who had become the most powerful commander within the Sichuan Army throughout 1923/24; what follows is direct confrontation between the forces of Yang and Liu, which soon evolves into a proxy war, as Yang still has the financial support of Wu Peifu, while Liu managed to gain the secret backing of warlords affiliated with the Anhui remnants in Eastern China. The situation further deteriorates upon Xiong Kewu's return from Guangzhou, but he is eventually defeated by his former subordinates and flees back into KMT-controlled territory in April 1924 - where he would be arrested a few months later due to alledged connections to Chen Jiongming.

Qi Xieyuan, ambitious warlord of Jiangsu, would gamble for more influence in the east and eventually lost; The subsequent war would lead to the complete collapse of the Zhili Clique and the escape of Qi to Japan - but would also manifest the rise of Sun Chuanfang, warlord of Fujian

On 20 May, the Mongolian Bogd Khan dies. Roman von Ungern-Sternberg takes control of the Bogd Khan's imperial seal, declaring himself "Regent of Mongolia" until the next reincarnation is found.

In mid-September, a dangerous conflict develops over the control of Shanghai, China's largest city and port. De jure, Shanghai always had been part of Jiangsu province, a core Zhili domain since the very beginning of the Warlord Era and since 1920 under the rule of Qi Xieyuan. However, de facto, the city has been administered as part of the Zhejiang province for the last few years, which is one of the last Chinese regions firmly under the control of the dying Anhui clique remants. With the Zhili clique being close to internal collapse due to infighting within its highest ranks, noone would have assumed that another war with one of the weakened other Northern cliques would break out that soon, but fighting indeed erupts when Zhejiang authorities refuse to cede the administration of the city to Qi Xieyuan. Zhang Zuolin and Sun Yat-sen pledge to defend neutral Zhejiang in an effort to weaken the Zhili Clique, expanding the conflict to the far north and far south: It is the beginning of the Second Zhili-Fengtian War.

At that point, for the first time during the Warlord Era a true internal (but informal) split within the Zhili Clique can be noted: As the forces of Wu Peifu and Cao Kun are preoccupied with defending the Chinese northern frontier from invading Fengtian troops, they are not able to properly assist their subordinates in Eastern China. Cut off from support by the central government, the Zhili-aligned governors of Jiangsu, Fujian, Anhui and Jiangxi therefore form the so-called "Southern Zhili Clique", which would enjoy almost total autonomy over their own affairs, while Wu's forces in the north would become known as the "Northern Zhili Clique". Only connected by the greater goal of subjugating their common enemies, mistrust between the Northern and Southern factions would gradually rise throughout the coming decade.

One of the most important acts that manifests the foundation of the Southern Zhili Clique is the formation of the so-called Jiangsu–Zhejiang Allied Army, a direct alliance of Qi Xieyuan's Jiangsu province with Zhili-aligned Fujian to the south. Fujian always had been a core Anhui domain, but the long-reigning governor, Li Houji, had been ousted by the Zhili Clique in 1923 and replaced by the young and ambitious Sun Chuanfang. When Qi invades Zhejiang to gain control over the city of Shanghai, Sun would wholeheartedly support him to expand his own influence northwards. Shortly after, both governors would sign the above-mentioned alliance of convenience to resist invading forces from the north and south.

Troops of Feng Yuxiang marching in front of the Forbidden City, Beijing, October 1924

Meanwhile in the north, Zhang Zuolin leads his forces down to Shanhaiguan and engages the troops of Wu Peifu. On 18 September, the opposing armies meet, with the battle drastically intensifying after 28 September. Fengtian assaults on Shanhaiguan are thrown back as Zhili forces take up defensive positions, enjoying geographical advantages. At this point, another Zhili victory still seems more than likely. However, in secret, Zhang Zuolin would begin to negotiate a temporary anti-Zhili alliance in the background: He already has the diplomatic support of the Guangzhou Government, but is still in dire need of finding someone within the Zhili Clique who would be willing to betray his superiors and potentially defect to the Fengtian Clique. Said figure is eventually found in the form of Feng Yuxiang. Feng, a known embracer of KMT values who only rose to prominence within the clique quite recently, expresses his willingness to work together with the Fengtian Clique and soon enacts a controversial political move that would eventually lead to the collapse and temporary downfall of the Zhili Clique: the Beijing Coup.

The Beijing Coup is launched on 23 October right in the heart of the Zhili Clique, financially supported with Japanese and Fengtian funds. Feng's troops occupy key government buildings within the city and block the roads leading into and out of the city. President Cao Kun is captured, stripped of all of his ranks and put under house arrest. After the coup, Feng installs a new, more liberal President, the non-partisan Huang Fu. Huang initiates several reforms on Feng's behalf including the expulsion of Puyi from the Forbidden City and abolishing the role of the old bell and drum towers as the official timepiece. However, after the war, Huang would be replaced by a more pro-Japanese candidate under pressure of the Fengtian Clique, as he had not been willing to grant financial concessions to Japan, leading to the eventual return of Duan Qirui to Beiyang politics and the dissolution of the discredited National Assembly. After Puyi's expulsion, he takes up residence in the German concession in Tianjin.

In late 1924, Wu Peifu was without a doubt one of the most important men in all of China. In fact, he would be the first Asian to ever be featured on the cover of the American news magazine Time

Upon receiving news of the coup, the Fengtian commanders Zhang Zongchang and Li Jinglin use this opportunity to launch a major offensive and eventually break the Zhili's frontline, forcing them to retreat. Zhang Zuolin orders to pursue the demoralized Zhili troops and manages to win a major battle outside Tianjin; Wu then withdraws to Junliangcheng with the goal to take the train down to his power base in Henan and reorganize his troops, but these plans are interfered by he sudden and surprising intervention of yet another warlord: Yan Xishan of the Shanxi Clique. Yan, formerly a warlord very loosely affiliated with the Anhui Clique, had declared Shanxi's neutrality in the early '20s, devoting himself to the modernization of his province as he was well aware that Shanxi was not sufficiently developed to compete for hegemony with other warlords. Now however, he suddenly begins to support the anti-Zhili alliance out of pure opportunism: Yan always had been a very progressive-minded person and never had been very content with Cao Kun's ascension to the Presidency. His troops would capture the city of Shijiazhuang, severing the tracks of the Beijing–Hankou railway and therefore cutting Wu off from his associates in the south. Facing attacks from all sides, Wu and his 2000 remaining men are forced to embark on a transport ship in Tanggu in early November, sailing down to Eastern China where the Southern Zhili Clique can protect them from further Fengtian incursions. At this point, the war in the north is basically over.

However, the situation in Eastern China does not exactly look bright as well. Under the orders of Zhang Zuolin, Zhang Zongchang would take the train down towards Shanghai via Anhui-controlled Shandong in an effort to root out the forces of Southern Zhili commanders Qi Xieyuan and Sun Chuanfang and stop them from reinforcing Wu. The attack would catch Qi and Sun on the wrong foot, as they mainly had expected a KMT attack from the south, but not a sudden Fengtian advance from the north. Soon, Sun and Qi find themselves cut off from each other and Qi is eventually defeated and flees to Japan in the last moment - ironically, the downfall of Sun Chuanfang's former ally would manifest his own rise to prominence only a few months later.

Anti-KMT and especially anti-Sun Yat-sen propaganda pamphlets spread by the Canton Merchant Corps during their uprising in late 1924. About two thousand people are killed & great swathes of Guangzhou burn to the ground during the uprising.

Meanwhile, as agreed previously, Sun Yat-sen sends his newly-recruited and trained men northwards into Fujian to support Zhang against Sun Chuanfang's troops, but a rebellion by the Canton Merchant Corps, disgruntled by the Kuomintang's leftist rhetoric, as well as small-scalle insurrections loyal to Chen Jiongming break out in Guangzhou and Western Guangdong. Sun Yat-sen is eventually forced to order his troops to return, eventually putting down the uprising at home. The leaders of the Merchant Corps, most prominently Chen Lianbo, flee to British Hongkong in the aftermath. The short-lived campaign proves to be the first major conflict fought by cadets and officers trained at the newly-established Whampoa Military Academy.

After 2 November the war is effectively over, with the Zhili losing all of their northern provinces to Zhang Zuolin's Fengtian Clique and Feng Yuxiang's forces, the so-called Guominjun ("National Army"): The myth of Zhili invincibility has been entirely shattered. However, fighting continues well into 1925 down in Zhejiang between Fengtian and Southern Zhili forces - but in Beijing, peace finally endures again for the time being. Northern China is divided among the victors, with Zhang Zuolin taking the prosperous North China Plain, while Feng's influence remains limited to the former Zhili territories in poor Northwestern China - this unfiar discrepancy would soon lead to tensions. A new provisional government under the famous Duan Qirui as figurehead is created to balance the interests of Feng and Zhang, but in return, Duan would be pressured to hand in Shandong, the last remaining Anhui-held province in China, to the Fengtian, de facto ending Anhui presence in China outside of the Beiyang Government. At the end of the year, renewed plans to hold negotiations for national reunification between Feng, Zhang, Duan and Sun Yat-sen become loud, with Sun travelling to Beijing for the first time in years; everything seems to be steering towards a bright future, but once again, this would turn out to be a mere illusion.

After the Second Zhili-Fengtian War, a new power triumvirate arose in Beijing: Feng Yuxiang of the Guominjun, Zhang Zuolin of the Fengtian Clique and their powerless puppet president Duan Qirui, once the most powerful man in China and head of the Anhui Clique.

In Eastern Guangdong, suspecting Peng Pai's experiment in Hai-Lu-Feng is too connected to the Kuomintang and supported by the French, Chen Jiongming decides to stop and suppress it. Peng Pai then turns to the KMT and becomes a leading figure in its agrarian socialist wing. However, this wing is not wholeheartedly supported by the influential right-wing of the KMT and Peng’s proposal of setting up the Guangzhou Peasant Movement Training Institute (PMTI) is rejected. High-ranking KMT right-wingers claim that such movement would only lead to chaos and anarchy in the countryside and refrain the agrarian socialists from their experiment.

Meanwhile in Tibet, the 13th Dalai Lama, who has ruled in Lhasa relatively isolated since the Xinhai Revolution, greatly expands and reforms his nation's infrastructure, building hospitals and schools, reforming the government to avoid political corruption, expanding the military, and allowing relatively free movement in and out of Tibet. To accomplish this, he orders Commander-in-chief Changra to purchase and train regiments with newly-purchased British Lee Enfield rifles. To pay for these soldiers, the Dalai Lama orders for additional taxes from the Tashi Lhunpo Monastery, whose steward, the 9th Panchen Lama, refuses. The Panchen Lama, whose authority in Tibetan Buddhism is nearly as high as the Dalai Lama’s, is punished by having his monastery cut off from government support: Sensing his imminent expulsion, the Panchen Lama flees to Mongolia.

1925

China in April 1925, after the last fighting in Eastern China has ceased

Unfortunately, the anti-Zhili coalition's efforts for a negotiated unification are fruitless, as Sun Yat-sen dies of cancer in Beijing in March, aged 58. China remains stuck in a fragile status quo, with tensions between the Fengtian Clique and Guominjun gradually increasing, while in the Guangzhou Government a dangerous power struggle among Sun's former must trusted associates begins to unfold itself.

In Eastern China, the war between Zhang Zongchang and Sun Chuanfang is still raging. Zhang manages to capture the cities of Nanjing and Shanghai in the name of the Fengtian Clique in January, however Sun is able to repel Zhang's forces from Zhejiang and Anhui. In late April, the two factions can finally agree on a temporary peace treaty: Sun is recognized as the rightful governor of Fujian and Zhejiang as well as half of Shanghai, Zhang is appointed governor of Shandong and the other half of Shanghai and the provinces of Jiangsu and Anhui, as a neutral middle ground, are ceded once again to Anhui-affiliated warlords (however, over the course of the year, they would be eventually deposed and replaced with Fengtian generals, with Yang Yuting becoming governor of Jiangsu and Jiang Dengxuan becoming governor of Anhui). Therefore, while the Second Zhili-Fengtian War had caused the defeat of the Zhili Clique in Northern China and the retreat of Wu Peifu to Henan and Hubei, the position of the Zhili-aligned warlords in Eastern China, especially Sun Chuanfang, still remains largely untouched; however, the partition of Shanghai between Fengtian and Zhili forces would soon cause further tensions later that year.

Leading Kuomintang members in Guangzhou in July 1925, including Wang Jingwei, Hu Hanmin, Liao Zhongkai and Zhu Peide

Meanwhile in the south, the Kuomintang is in deep crisis about its future leadership. The main contenders in this uneasy struggle are the left-leaning Wang Jingwei and Liao Zhongkai and the right-leaning Hu Hanmin, with Whampoa Academy instructor and former close companion of Sun Yat-sen Chiang Kai-shek taking in a more moderate, centrist stance. Especially Liao Zhongkai is notably in favour of maintaining close relations with the Commune of France as well as the Chinese Syndicalist movement, which however is strongly opposed by the KMT right wing, backed principally by the New Guanxi Clique and Tang Jiyao in Yunnan. Tang originally had contested the KMT leadership as well, assuming it would fianlly manifest his position as the most powerful warlord in the south, but trouble in the neighboring province of Guizhou, refrain him ultimately from doing so. Upon learning that Guizhou's governor Yuan Zuming had meddled in Sichuanese affairs to north, indirectly supplanting Tang's own influence in the Yunnanese-Sichuanese border region, he launches the Second Yunnan-Guizhou War in April 1925, ousting Yuan and replacing him with his brother Tang Jiyu. The direct exploitation of Guizhou would increase Tang's financial revenues to further expand his army, enabling him to further bolster his position in the south.

Over the year, tensions within the Guangzhou Government would constantly rise, and the fact that no clear political leadership is in charge would severely weaken the morale among soldiers and politicians alike, leading to corruption and lawlessness on the countryside. Fearing a coup of influential military officers, an invasion of Eastern Guangdong, called the Eastern Expedition, is launched to keep the army engaged: Throughout the summer, the last remants of Chen Jiongming's forces are defeated, with Chen escaping to British Hong Kong. Further anti-KMT revolt attempts take place over the course of the rest of the year both in rural areas of Guangdong, such as that of Yunnan warlord and Old Guangxi Clique sympathizer Yang Ximin and Liu Zhenhuan or that of Tang Zimo, a former subordinate of ex-Sichuan warlord Xiong Kewu, but all of these can be crushed, with its leaders and participants either fleeing to Hong Kong or Sichuan or being outright executed. At the end of the summer, most of Guangdong is finally unified under the banner of the Kuomintang - but the political struggle in Guangzhou continues, eventually culminating in a bloody assassination attempt on 20 August: Before a Kuomintang Executive Committee meeting, Liao Zhongkai is almost killed by five gunmen with Mauser C96 handguns as he steps out of his limousine, only barely surviving. Four of the five hitmen are killed by local security forces or commit suicide, the fifth however can be captured: He would be arrested, interrogated and later executed.

Wang Jingwei (second left) and Chiang Kai-shek (fourth left) together with KMT officers and Communard military advisors at the grave of Sun Yat-sen, Guangzhou, late 1925

Under severe pressure, the gunman reveals his connections to a associate of Hu Hanmin. It becomes obvious that the KMT right-wing is behind the assassination attempt. Chiang Kai-shek and Wang Jingwei seize the opportunity to execute Xu Chongzhi and Hu Hanmin after finding evidence of their involvment. The rightists however would repudiate these claims, arguing that the assassination attempt had been a bid of Wang and Chiang to get rid of the increasingly dominant KMT right-wing. Nonetheless, Wang Jingwei assumes the position of generalissimo and Chiang becomes commander of the KMT's military, while Liao Zhongkai becomes acting president of the Gouangzhou KMT government. This move is especially criticized by Tang Jiyao, who soon begins to use anti-socialist rhetorics and slowly distances himself from the Guangzhou Government. His criticism of the new government would lead to a steady exodus of the right to Yunnan, however, the party remains unified for the time being, with no formal split occurring as of yet – Chinese Unification comes first.

In Sichuan, the bloody fight between opposing warlord factions is still going on. While Liu Xiang had eventually defeated Yang Sen in 1924, emerging as the new most powerful warlord in Sichuan, the power balance in the province would remain fragile, especially with formerly Yunnan-aligned Guizhou warlord Yuan Zuming making touble in the south. In late July, Yang Sen, now supported by Wu Peifu to the east, would invade Sichuan from Hubei, launching the Sichuanese War of Unification. Liu Xiang immediateley forms a so called anti-Yang alliance, including Yuan Zuming, and defeats Yang later that year. Yang flees back into Zhili-controlled territory and Liu stands victorious; however, his tenuous alliance with Yuan had drastically increased the latter's influence in the province, shifting the power balance in Sichuan once again.

The Canton-Hong Kong Strike would plunge the British possessions in Southern China into total chaos, leading to economic turmoil and the eventual intervention of the Germans.

Simultaneously to the events in China, Europe descends into political chaos: The British Revolution and the subsequent crash of the New York Stock Exchange in April sends shockwaves around the globe, political tensions between the German-aligned bloc and the syndicalists reach new heights. But also in the far-flung British colonies and concessions, these tensions can be felt, most prominently in South Asia, where the British Raj completely collapses due to local revolts, but also in China: In the Shanghai International Settlement, an American-British concession open for international trade, the Shanghai Municipal Police is on high alert, ready to crack down on any kind of potential syndicalist agitation. In the end however, it would not be European agitators to light the fuse, but the Chinese themselves. KMT presence in the still divided city is at an all-time high, especially in the surroundings of the far-left Shanghai University. On 30 May 1925, violence breaks out when policemen try to break up a student demonstration, with several gunshots being fired and 9 persons dead: This so-called Shanghai massacre triggers the May Thirtieth Movement, in which Chinese Syndicalists and the KMT take a prominent role. Throughout the next weeks, most of the city's infrastructure would completely collapse, martial law would be declared, with dozens of protestors and foreigners being killed.

Even worse however, the British are blamed by international observers for the massacre, as most of the policemen responsible for the many deaths had been Sikhs from British India. This soon causes unrest in most British Chinese concessions, most prominently however on the island of Shamian, a joint British-German concession ironically directly located in the heart of Guangzhou, the center of anti-imperialist agitation in all of China: During the so-called Canton–Hong Kong strike, thousands of anti-imperialist Chinese protestors marched onto Shamian Island, announcing their plans to expel the foreign powers and cancel the unequal treaties. Local British, German and Portuguese soldiers, perceiving gunshots being fired at them, begin to open fire on the protesters, causing the Shakee massacre, which would be even more bloody than the confrontation in Shanghai: Over 50 are killed and more than 170 people are seriously injured.

Letter of Hong Kong Governor Claud Severn to the German Governor-General of Indochina

The incident in Shamian would almost cause an international crisis, as the KMT leadership in Guangzhou considers to launch an outright invasion of the concession, but the plan is eventually dropped due to Communard insistence, as the French cannot afford to risk war with the German Empire in Europe. Instead, an anti-colonial press campaign is initiated, with anti-European pamphletes being passed around in Guangzhou and Hong Kong and even rumours being spread that the British are planning to poison the local water supplies. Devastating strikes are the result, with 250,000 protestors demanding the withdrawal of the European powers in late July. Tensions at this point are higher than ever at any point in British-Chinese colonial history (excluding the Boxer Rebellion). The wave of unrest that follows emboldens the Chinese Syndicalist Party to form the League of Chinese Syndicalists (LCS) in an attempt to broaden its support base. Although initially suspicious, the Kuomintang accepts the LCS into the "United Front".

Meanwhile, the civil war in Britain has reached its peak, with thousands of loyalists fleeing the island by ship in all directions. With the London government barely exerting any influence anymore, the foreign politics of the United Kingdom completely come to a standstill. This would have drastic influence on the events in Canton and Hong Kong; with most of the Chinese citizens on strike and because of the aftereffects of the NYSE crash, the British economy in the city collapses completely and would remain paralysed for the following months. Anarchy threatens to prevail in the British concessions, with foreigners being attacked on the streets, but then, Claud Severn, Governor of Hong Kong, comes to a controversial decision which would have far-reaching consequences a later on: He strikes a deal with a former enemy. When the China Station of the Royal Navy withdraws from Hong Kong to Weihaiwei in late July (later that year even fully retreating to Australasia to put down insurrection), Severn contacts the German Governor-General of Indochina, in order to solicit support from Guangzhouwan to ensure the concession's safety as he still fears a full-blown KMT intervention. The Germans are all too happy to comply, and within a matter of days over 3,000 German troops take up positions in Kowloon and the New Territories, with the prospect of prompt reinforcement. The British concession on Shamian Island is temporarily occupied as well.

The New York Times article about the Shanghai Scramble, August 1925

An anti-British and anti-German boycott continues for several more months, even though the heavily-armed presence of German colonial troops calms down the situation over time. Still, the local economy remains mostly paralysed and Hong Kong's total trade falls by 75% and shipping diminishes by over 60%. The Chinese warlords of the north use the incident as a pretext to further their own political aims: While Feng Yuxiang threatens to attack European interests via force and demands a public apology, Zhang Zuolin, who effectively controls Shanghai's Chinese outskirts, has his police and soldiers arrest protesters and socialists and assist the Settlement forces in their stabilization efforts.

Berlin soon unilaterally extends their offer of protection to all of Britain’s concessions in China until the restoration of “responsible British Government” could be ensured, an offer soon echoed by virtually every power with a presence in the country. In what would soon come to be called the “Shanghai Scramble”, German and Japanese troops begin a series of standoffs across the remaining concessions, re-igniting tensions ostensibly extinguished with the Tsingtao Accord only four years prior. The American “China Marines”, the 15th Infantry Regiment and the Philippine Division (under Brigadier-General Douglas MacArthur) soon join the bloodless struggle, later followed by token forces from Austria-Hungary and the Russian Republic. Though Austrian and Russian forces depart after only two months, this general state of affairs persists for nearly two years, as the respective sides delineate informal areas of control within the former British quarters and regularly butt heads.

In Central China, Wu Peifu establishes his new power base in Wuhan, Hubei, militarily supported by Zhili-aligned Hunan Governor Zhao Hengti. There, sends out messages to various surrounding provincial governors preemptively declaring the new Beijing government illegitimate, proclaiming himself the defender of the legitimate national government, and calling for support. His attempt to form a "Coalition of 14 Provinces" however fails spectacularly when most governors, even his Zhili associate Sun Chuanfang, respond much less enthusiastically than he expected - it has become clear that he has lost most of his sway over the country. However, much surprinsingly, the Germans, concerned abount the imminent push by the French-backed KMT to unify the country, contact Wu by the end of he year with the intention of planning to eventually interfere directly in the conflict in China, promising him to support him diplomatically and financially.

China in November 1925, on the eve of the Anti-Fengtian War

Meanwhile in the North, tensions are gradually rising between Feng Yuxiang and Zhang Zuolin. Throughout the summer and autumn of 1925, both Zhang and Feng begin soliciting help from their former Zhili enemy, Wu Peifu. Seething at Feng's earlier betrayal during the Beijing coup, Wu eventually seals an alliance with the Fengtian Clique in late 1925: A new major war in China seems to be on the way. And indeed, in October, Guo Songling, high-ranking Fengtian army commander who formerly served in the south under Sun Yat-sen, secretly defects to the Guominjun. On 22 November 1925, he would suddenly lay siege to Mukden, striking directly at the heart of the Fengtian Clique - it is the beginning of the Anti-Fengtian War, which pits the overstretched Guominjun against a coalition comprising the Zhili and Fengtian Cliques.

However, not all Zhili-aligned governors would fight the Guominjun on the side of Wu Peifu: Sun Chuanfang, keen to further expand his sphere of influence in the east, would use the chaos in the north to establish full control over Shanghai and march north into Fengtian-controlled Jiangsu and Anhui. On 25 November 125, he establishes his new headquarters in the old southern capital of Nanjing as military governor of Jiangsu; this day is considered the founding date of the so-called League of Five Provinces and finally marks the clear split of the Zhili Clique into its northern and southern factions, with Sun being at the time effectively more powerful than his nominal superior Wu Peifu. The Guangzhou Government, surprised about Sun's reluctancy to support his Zhili comrades, tries to convince him to defect to the KMT; Sun is indeed a popular target to woo, having recently fought against Zhang's armies, he seems unwilling to suddenly fight on the Fengtian Clique's side against the Guominjun just because of his loose ties to the Zhili Clique. Sun, however, refuses and executes Wang Jingwei's emissaries. Wang retaliates in turn by executing Sun's envoys.

During the Anti-Fengtian War, Manchuria proper would see active fighting for the first time since the Russo-Japanese War of 1904/05.

On 24 December, in a stunning reversal of fortune, Guo's siege of Mukden is lifted by the intervention of the Japanese Kwantung Army, and Guo is killed. The Guominjun begins haemorrhaging soldiers, both from fighting and desertion, as it tries to hold off the combined armies of Wu Peifu and Zhang Zuolin. When the regent of Mongolia, Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, is brought into the conflict against Feng Yuxiang through ties to his and Zhang’s mutual sponsors, the Japanese, and begins to advance into Chahar, the Guominjun slowly withdraws from the northern borderands, focusing their strength on maintaining their presence in the North China Plain and Western China instead.

During the revolutionary chaos in India, Tibetan troops occupy Ladakh in the Chinese-Indian borderlands.

Showdown in the East

1926 (Failed Northern Expedition)

In Sichuan, Liu Xiang, disgruntled with Yuan Zumings steadily increasing influence in the south of the province, strikes a deal with his former enemy, Yang Sen, who has relocated to Hunan where he is propped up with Zhili and German equipment for yet another offensive into Sichuan. Throughout the early months of the year, Yuan Zuming is expelled from the province by a united offensive of Liu's and Yang's forces. Following that, Yuan would join the Guangzhou Government and participate in the Northern Expedition later that year, eventually being killed in early 1927 after supposedly planning to defect to the Zhili Clique. After the anti-Yuan coalition's victory, Yang Sen is recognized as the legitimate governor of Sichuan by Wu Peifu; however, the governorship is a mere nominal one, as the true power within Sichuan continues to lay in the hands of Liu Xiang, who exerts lots of influence from his well-established power base in Chongqing.

Protests in Beijing shortly before the March 18 Massacre

Meanwhile in the north, the war is going badly for the Guominjun and, on 8 March, they blockade and mine Tanggu harbour in defense of Tianjin. On 12 March, a Japanese warship bombards the Taku Forts in support of the simultaneous Fengtian offensive, killing several Guominjun troops and high-ranking officers. In retaliation, Guominjun troops fire back and drive the warship out of the harbour. This act is treated by Japan as a violation of the Boxer Protocol, signed in 1900 in the aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion - an international crisis seems to be imminent. And indeed, four days later, ambassadors from Germany, the United States, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Japan, Spain and the Netherlands (all of which were signatory nations to the Boxer Protocol) send an ultimatum to the Beiyang Government, demanding the destruction of all defence establishments around Tanggu harbour - even though the Beiyang Government is not even responsible for them, but their adversaries, the Guominjun. European & American warships are send to Tianjin and a 44 hour ultimatum is delivered, deescalation measures can be agreed upon eventually.

As a result, a joint demonstration is organized by the Kuomintang and various Chinese socialists in front of the Tiananmen Gate on March 18. Li Dazhao, the leader of the demonstrators, makes an emotional address in front of thousands of students, trade unions and citizens, calling for an end to all unequal treaties signed between China and the foreign powers, in addition to expelling the foreign ambassadors who issued the ultimatum. He also calls upon Feng Yuxiang and his Guominjun to actively fight Western imperialism. Premier Jia Deyao however, who is worried about the situation getting out of control, orders the military police to disperse the protesters. The confrontation leads to violence, of which 47 protesters are killed and more than 200 injured. Li Dazhao is also wounded during this so-called March 18 Massacre massacre. This leads to a backlash by the warlords against nationalist and syndicalist agitators, and against the Duan presidency by the public. Though Duan Qirui expresses his remorse about the brutal suppression of the protests, he is eventually removed him from office the next month. This marks the end of Anhui influence in China; Duan retires once and for all and his last remaining loyal men join the Fengtian Clique.

Feng Yuxiang, a pro-KMT former Zhili military officer who would defect in 1924 to form the Guominjun ("Nationalist Army"). The Anti-Fengtian War of 1926/27 & the subsequent Muslim revolt in Gansu would see his downfall.

In April, in order to appease the Zhili clique, Feng Yuxiang releases the deposed ex-president Cao Kun, who had been put under arrest by Feng in 1924. Wu however does not respond, being more than determined to bring down the traitor who once caused his downfall. Zhang Xueliang, the son of Zhang Zuolin, marches into Beijing on 1 May, occupying and sacking it which leads to chaos and to the complete collapse of much of the Beiyang government's bureaucracy. Wu's forces would arrive a few days later. With Inner Mongolia simultaneously falling into the hands of Mongolian and Fengtian troops, the Guominjun decides to retreat into Shanxi and Northwest China, but on their way westwards through Shanxi, they are attacked by the soldiers of Yan Xishan. While in principle sympathetic to the Guominjun due to being an ex-Tongmenghui member, Yan decides as always to maintain a very strict neutrality policy to protect his province from being drawn into the eternal civil wars of the Beiyang Government.

In the end, the Guominjun is completely defeated in Northern China, with only a small remnant force holding out in the city of Zhangjiakou to the northwest of Beijing. The bulk of Feng's remaining forces withdraws to Shaanxi and the Muslim Ma domain, nominally subordinated to the Guominjun, where soon after bloody conflicts with the Hui warlords would break out, leading to the eventual collapse of the Guominjun in 1927. In Beijing, another uneasy coalition between the Fengtian and Zhili Cliques is formed; a succession of powerless Zhili warlords and non-partisan politicians would act as presidents and premiers, while the true military power of the Northern government continues to lay in the hands of Zhang Zuolin's ever growing Fengtian Clique.

In Guangzhou, sensing an opportunity to bring down the exhausted Northern warlords, the KMT launches the Northern Expedition on 9 July. Chiang Kai-shek gives a lecture to over 100,000 soldiers of the National Revolutionary Army in a ceremony that can be considered the official commencement of the Northern Expedition. The NRA, set up by cadets trained in the Whampoa Military Academy, is better organized than many of the traditional warlord armies due to their military advisors, among them Vasily Blyukher, and their European equipment and weapons. In addition, the NRA thinks of itself as a progressive force on behalf of ordinary people, who are persecuted and mistreated by warlords, and therefore most NRA troops would later receive a warm welcome and strong support from peasants and workers who have suffered under the brutal rule of the warlords.

The early stages of the Northern Expedition (needs to be fixed)

A few days after that, the NRA advances from their base in Guangdong into Hunan to the north, with the goal to subdue the Zhili troops of Wu Peifu. Hunan falls very quickly, mainly because Zhili control is very thinly spread there. While Zhili commander Zhao Hengti is still de jure governor of the province, de facto control of the province lays in the hands of Tang Shengzi, a KMT-aligned warlord, since March 1926. Less than a week after the start of the campaign, Changsha is under complete control of the Kuomintang. From there, the NRA would further advance north towards Wuhan, where Wu's headquarters are located: With Wu still being preoccupied with rooting out Guominjun remnants in Northern China, Chiang expects to capture the important Tri-City very fast. The city is completely surrounded by early September; while Hankou and Hanyang would fall indeed very quickly, the infamous Siege of Wuchang would take several weeks and can be considered to be one of the causes of the eventual failure of the Northern Expedition.

Around the same time, another KMT offensive on the League of Five Provinces is launched, conquering Jiangxi and advancing deep into Fujian. A further advance into Zhejiang however is not possible, as Sun arrives with reinforcements from Nanjing, brutally asserting his authority in the Jiangxi-Zhejiang border region by killing hundreds of students, teachers, and suspected members of the KMT, whose severed heads are displayed on spikes in public places. At that point, in mid-September 1926, the future of the Northern Expedition still seems uncertain: Progress in Eastern China has been halted by Sun's forces for the time being and Wuchang still has not fallen to Chiang Kai-shek. However, the biggest problem of all is the increased interference of the imperialist powers. The coast of Guangdong has been blockaded by German ships since July/August, when it had become public that the French were secretly supplying the Guangzhou Government with weapon deliveries via India.

"Incident on the Yangtze!" The North China Herald, September 25th 1926, Issue 508.

The seeds for Germany’s direct intervention in China are planted at the Siege of Wuchang. The continued survival of the city's garrison is a thorn in Chiang Kai-shek's side: He had counted on a swift victory, and while his cause is buoyed by the successful capture of Nanchang to the east, the significance of Wuchang as the birthplace of the Xinhai Revolution could have made its conquest the perfect propaganda platform. Scared that Chiang could also threaten the international concessions in nearby Hankou, several great powers send gunboats on the Yangtze to defend themselves, should the situation escalate. Said escalation threatens to occur when shells fired by Chiang's armies, intended to hit the Wuchang fortress, damage several gunboats on the Yangtze, among them the USS Pigeon on 13 September and the SMS Maikäfer on 20 September. The SMS Maikäfer responds with its cannons and machinegun fire.

When Chiang delivers an ultimatum to the powers demanding that they withdraw their gunboats from the area, most decide on a policy of passive defiance, but Germany goes a step further. Its gunboats begin supplying the Wuchang garrison with badly needed food under the pretense of delivering "postage" on 24th September, triggering the controversial Yangtze Incident. The guise is poor, but this doesn't matter. Germany now has a justification to escalate the conflict, and has called Chiang's bluff. Further escalation would risk further German intervention, but Chiang gambles that this is the extent of German commitment, and that he can achieve the victory he needs elsewhere. Instead of doubling down, he leaves the siege to his subordinate Li Zongren after the incident and proceeds downriver towards Nanjing: The old southern capital should make for an equally good stage from which to declare China's rebirth, he thinks.

What Chiang does not know at this point is that a German intervention is almost imminent in any case: German troops in the British concessions across China, especially in the South, have begun to grow restless after reported attempts by Kuomintang troops to enter the concession under darkness. Everything hints towards an incoming German intervention: Slowly, Germany begins to prepare troop detachments in Tsingtau and Indochina, establishing clear plans where to deploy them in the following weeks.

In October, emboldened by the slow but steady NRA advance in Fujian and Chiang's march on Nanjing, the civil governor of Zhejiang, Xia Chao, one of Sun's subordinates, defects to the KMT: A move all too sudden, his rebellion would be crushed only a week later when he attempts to march northwards to assist Chiang; Sun's forces subsequently capture Zhejiang's capital, Hangzhou, defeating the rebels by 23 October. Xia is executed, along with most of his troops, while thousands of civilians are massacred at Xia's former headquarters.

The later stages of the Northern Expedition. (needs to be fixed)

Later that month, the German intervention in the Northern Expedition is launched: Two expeditionary forces are dispatched after talks with high-ranking Zhili representatives; the first, deployed from Tsingtao, moves southwards to Nanjing to prevent Chiang from capturing the city, and the second is shipped from German Indochina to Hong Kong, with the goal to move into neighboring Guangzhou and drive the KMT out of their most important headquarters. This would strike the movement at its heart, disrupt its already stretched supply lines, and scatter Kuomintang forces in Southern China. Simultaneously, the Guominjun begins to collapse on all fronts: After several crushing defeats in Inner Mongolia and Hubei, their remaining troops are scattered across Shaanxi, Shanxi, Suiyuan and Western China. Paired with famine, natural disaster and the Guominjun exploiting Hui land for opium plantations, this would soon lead to the Muslim conflict in Gansu at the end of the year. Under the lead of Ma Zhongying, a coalition of Muslim generals breaks out in revolt against the Guominjun, slowly pushing them out over the course of the next few years. While most members of the Ma family remain ambivalent towards the revolt at first, most prominently the influential governors of Qinghai and Ningxia, Ma Qi and Ma Fuxiang, the eventual collapse of the Northern Expedition convinces them to join the insurrection in mid-1927.

Ma Zhongying, a Chinese muslim and member of the Ma family, first rose to prominence during the revolt against Feng Yuxiang in Gansu in the late 1920s. Barely 17 years old at the time, he became famous as the "Baby General".

In November, Guangzhou falls to invading German troops from Hong Kong. While the Germans are unable to capture any high-ranking KMT politicians in Guangzhou, the party is thrown into complete disarray; what NRA troops remain in the south begin to disband, and supplies destined for the Wuhan and Jiangxi fronts quickly grow thin. Wang Jingwei and other party functionaries relocate to Nanning for the time being. With the fall of Guangzhou, most of Guangxi and Guangdong begin to slowly collapse as well. The Germans do not advance too deep into the inland, mainly occupying small stretches of land around Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Macao and securing the territories around Guangzhouwan to stop KMT troops from evacuating to Hainan via the Leizhou Peninsula. The chaos in the south soon leads to the reemergence of former enemies of the Kuomintang: Lu Rongting, leader of the old Guangxi Clique who had been ousted in 1923/24 by his former KMT-aligned subordinate Li Zongren, enters the province from the north, slowly advancing towards Nanning, while Chen Jiongming, a former close associate of Sun Yat-Sen turned KMT opponent deposed in 1924 by forces from Yunnan, returns from his exile in Hong Kong with German support and manages to reestablish himself in Eastern Guangdong, winning the support of the Merchant Corps and the local gentries disgruntled by KMT with his regionalist, federalist rhetoric. Many former NRA troops would defect to Lu or Chen, gradually weakening the KMT throughout November and December.

Meanwhile, Chiang leads his forces over the Yellow Mountains with the goal to push deep into Zhejiang, capturing Hangzhou, Shanghai and then Nanjing. However, due to Zhili troops supported by German reinforcements blockading the important Yu Ling Pass to the east of Shezhou, Chiang has to change his plan, moving southwards to Quzhou instead. A small rearguard force is left in the mountains, while Chiang's main forces gradually advance through the fertile riverlands of Western Zhejiang towards Jinhua during the last weeks of the year.

1927 (Collapse of the KMT, Third Zhili-Fengtian War and Xuantong Restoration)

The final stages of the Northern Expedition. (needs to be fixed)

After harsh resistance from local Zhili detachments, Jinhua would be finally captured by the NRA after fierce resistance in the last days of December. There, Chiang sets up camp, with the goal to properly resupply his forces in the fertile riverlands of the region and wait for the arrival of KMT reinforcements from Fujian. In case of a sudden advance of Sun Chuanfang's troops from the east, Jinhua would be easily defendable, Chiang assumes, and his western flank is secured by the rearguard in the Southern Yellow Mountains. What Chiang however does not include in his calculations is the scale of the German intervention; soon, German scouting planes are flying over Western Zhejiang, recording the exact positions of the NRA. Shortly after, Sun sends his most skilled men and his German allies to engage Jinhua from two directions: One large army approaches Jinhua from Hangzhou to the east, while another army, equipped with modern German weaponry and led by German officers, directly attacks Chiang's rearguard in the mountains, defeating them in an overwhelming victory, and then proceed towards Jinhua from the west.

When Chiang realizes that the city is being attacked from two sides, it is already too late; while he manages to defend the city for a few days, his forces are eventually defeated in the infamous Battle of Jinhua on 19 January, leaving the core of the NRA defeated, demoralized and disintegrating. Chiang and some of his remaining troops flee southwards in the aftermath of the battle, attempting to go into hiding into the hills of Southern China and later join He Yingqin. On the way however, he is assassinated by some of his own men, possibly in retaliation for his involvement in the earlier execution of Hu Hanmin. At this point, the Northern Expedition is basically over, with no realistic hope of KMT recovery.

The collpase of the Guangzhou Government (needs to be fixed).

Throughout February, most German troops would slowly retreat back into their concessions. Guangzhou is handed over to Chen Jiongming's forces, which would soon establish control over all of Guangdong. Hopeless about the overall situation, the KMT leadership decides to flee the country temporarily: Wang Jingwei and Liao Zhongkai officially declare the end of the campaign and retreat towards the coast, embarking on transport ships at Yangjiang, one of the last KMT-controlled port cities, and escape to Free India, and eventually to the Commune of France in mid-February. After news about that and about the alledged assassination of Chiang spread throughout the country, most of the remaining NRA troops in Fujian, Jiangxi, and especially Hunan begin to desert, defect or desintegrate. By late February, most of the Eastern provinces are under full control of Sun Chuanfang again. Many KMT remnants in Jiangxi and Fujian retreat to the inland mountains in the aftermath, eventually establishing the MinGan Insurgent Zone a few years later. Other KMT detachments, for example those under Chen Mingshu and Chen Jitang, defect to Chen Jiongming, later becoming the backbone of Chen’s officer corps. Back in control, Chen’s supporters ruthlessly suppress the Hai-Lu-Feng peasant movement in Guangdong and kill Peng Pai. Although Chen tries to intervene and stop them, he finally acquiesces their brutality.

Hunan, still under the control of KMT-aligned warlord Tang Shengzhi, would be overrun by Zhili forces throughout February and March. Tang defects in the last moment but is arrested nonetheless. The NRA troops of Li Zongren manage to escape to Yunnan; even though Tang Jiyao, who has remained neutral throughout the whole expedition due to the fear of being invaded by the Germans from the south, tries to deny their entrance at first, he is eventually forced by his subordinates, most prominenntly Long Yun, to open the gates, in an effort to use the former KMT forces as a counter-balance to Tang’s dominance in the province. Xiong Kewu, who had been arrested by the KMT in late 1925, manages to escape from prison in the chaos of the Kuomintang's retreat, eventually fleeing to Yunnan as well, in an effort to rally support for another invasion of Sichuan.

China in February 1927, on the eve of the Third Zhili-Fengtian War (needs to be fixed)

In March, to be finally able to reintroduce stability in the south, Guangxi and Guangdong make a special agreement with Sun Chuanfang and, together with Hunan (which would however only fully join the League later that year), become member states of the League of Five Provinces, de facto making it the League of Eight Provinces. The different Southern warlords have multiple inducements for joining Sun Chuanfang's League: Chen Jiongming for example always has been a proponent of Chinese federalism, and the idea of being a governor of a model province within a united, but federalized China greatly appeals to him, while Lu Rongting, more of a classic warlord, mostly cares for his own position and does not bother too much about politics and the like, mostly because of his high age, and additionally, he already had established good relations with the Zhili Clique in the past. In Hunan, the long-reigning governor Zhao Hengti is reinstated, formerly directly aligned to Wu Peifu's power base in Henan, but he accepts to fully join the League when Wu's power base shifts northwards later that year.

Meanwhile in the North, a new conflict looms on the horizon. While the Northern Expedition has been defeated, the manner in which it happened greatly disappoints Zhang Zuolin and his Fengtian Clique. Zhang had planned to use the expedition as a pretext to expand his influence over the weakened Zhili Clique and intervene against the KMT in the eleventh hour to be celebrated as as China's grand saviour, but the German intervention had prevented him from playing any major role in the conflict. However, this leaves him with the advantage of a well rested and supplied army, ensuring he could go on the offensive very soon. However, an unprovoked offensive war would nonetheless be politically disadvantageous. Zhang has spent years stoking regionalist sentiment in Manchuria, making his massive expenditures south of the wall difficult to justify; furthermore, as a former bandit, he would have no political legitimacy should he proclaim himself a national leader. In order to gain it, Zhang is well aware that he has to present himself as a negotiator first and a soldier second.

Zhang Zongchang, Fengtian-aligned warlord in Shandong. Known by many nicknames, Zhang is especially renowned for his ruthlessness and intemperence and was dubbed China's basest warlord by the American Time magazine in March 1927

Therefore, Zhang calls for a new round of "national reconstruction" conferences in early February, proclaiming that his first and foremost goal is the peaceful reunifictaion of China, and proposes the drafting of a new constitution. Simultaneously however, he orders his subordinate Zhang Zongchang, since 1925 Fengtian-aligned Governor of Shandong, to move his base from Jinan southwards into Sun Chuanfang's territory, ostensibly to assist in rounding up the KMT remnants. The real intent however is to create a political powder-keg, with the eventual goal to provoke a nation-wide conflict that would improve Zhang Zuolin's geostrategical situation. The exact cause of the conflict remains unknown, with some claiming that Zhang Zongchang beginning a firefight during a drinking game or him driving a tank through a mansion wall are the main reasons; whatever the case, within a week of him arriving at Nanjing, “72-Cannon Zhang” has triggered a small war between his own men and local Southern Zhili forces.

Third Zhili-Fengtian War

Trying to present himself as a negotiator, Zhang Zuolin offers a series of deliberately unreasonable terms under which he would rein in his subordinate. When, as intended, they are rejected by Zhili representatives, Zhang launches a full attack against Sun Chuanfang, triggering the Third Zhili-Fengtian War. The Fengtian Second army, supported by divisions from Manchuria, rolls down the Jinpu Line connecting Tianjin to Pukou (a district of Shanghai) and besieges Nanjing. Though Sun is not caught unaware, he is forced to fight on two fronts: Zhang Zuolin coming from the north and Zhang Zongshang striking directly at his heart. Zhang Zuolin's gamble has paid off: As he already controls Beijing and Tianjin, capturing Nanjing and nearby Shanghai would place four of the country’s five great cities under his control. All that Zhang would then need to ensure his reunification of China is the tri-city area of Wuhan, held by the isolated and overstretched Wu Peifu. Zhang is confident taking it would be easy once Sun has been defeated.

Wu Peifu, the “Jade Marshal”, is thought to be a spent force by most, especially by Zhang himself, as Wu never truly recovered from his humiliating defeat in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War in 1924 and holding the Northern Expedition at Wuchang had proven to be a costly exercise. The natural & most logical thing for him to do, indeed the natural & most logical thing for almost any warlord to do, would therefore to consolidate his control over his remaining possessions before turning elsewhere. Any involvement in the renewed fighting to the east would be way too risky and would have to wait - or would it? It is to everyone’s surprise when Wu Peifu’s armies suddenly arrive at Zhuozhou, only some thirty-seven miles to the south of Beijing. The city quickly surrenders, and by the end of the next day the Jade Marshal’s forces have reached the gates of Beijing.

The capture of Beijing, Wu in black and Zhang in white

Surrounded by ancient imperial walls, known to be resistant to even modern artillery fire, the city could in theory serve as a serious obstacle, as Wu cannot afford a siege. Fengtian forces could already be on their way from Tianjin, as well as from Zhangjiakou, as efforts to root out the remants of Feng Yuxiang’s Guominjun are still underway. Pinned between these two forces, Wu Peifu would stand no chance, especially as the majority of his troops have yet to arrive from the south. Wu is thus counting on the element of surprise. The great lengths of city wall prove almost impossible for the reduced Fengtian garrison to effectively man, and by the dawn of the day after their arrival, Wu’s forces have begun to assault three of the city’s great gates. By the end of the same day, after blowing their way through thick wooden doors, Beijing is theirs. In under a week, Wu has seized the capital and most important city in China.

With most of his forces engaged around Nanjing, Zhang Zuolin is entirely caught off-balance. Nonetheless, like any experienced warlord, he has kept a significant portion of his forces in reserve for exactly this sort of unexpected eventuality. These now prepare to move north from Tianjin, while other units still active around Zhangyuan begin to move south, exactly as Wu has expected. It is here that the Jade Marshal’s trump card comes into play: As the trains carrying Fengtian troops arrive at Langfang, a city mid-way along the Tianjin-Beijing Line, they are blocked by the German garrison there. Permitted and empowered via the Boxer Protocol they and other foreign troops are tasked with ensuring that open access is maintained between the two cities, for the protection of the Legations in Beijing. The Germans insist that the Fengtian forces submit to a lengthy inspection process, and proceed one car at a time through the station. Though the Japanese protest at length, they have very little moral ground to stand on, as the Japanese garrison in Manchuria had halted the forces of Guo Songling in exactly the same way back in 1925.

China in April 1927, on the day of the Xuantong Restoration (needs to be fixed)

Thus, Wu is able to defeat his enemy in detail. The Fengtian forces coming from the north can be crushed and by the time the Southern forces arrive, Wu is able to turn his full attention to them. After a pitched battle outside Beijing, in which Wu’s tactical genius proves decisive, he is able to advance towards Tianjin itself. Now backed by the rest of his armies from Hubei, he severs the rail link at Tianjin, cutting the Fengtian forces in Nanjing off from Manchuria. Isolated and threatened in the rear, Zhang Zongchang breaks his siege of Nanjing, and retreats. A counter-attack by Zhang is defeated near Lutai, and the war settles into a stalemate in the Shanhai Pass; further trouble arrives when Fengtian forces face attacks by Mongolian cavalry in Inner Mongolia, forcing them to retreat from Chahar Province. After a month, in late March, a truce is signed under the auspices of the German and Japanese governments.

Of course, the German "intervention" at Lanfang in Wu Peifu's favour (and further but less obvious pro-Zhili aid, among them payments to keep Yan Xishan out of the conflict and secret material & supply deliveries after the capture of Beijing) does not come from nowhere - considering German diplomats had been in talks with Zhili representatives since late 1925 - and of course the Germans expect a proper compensation in return for their efforts: Germany officially recognizes Wu's new government in Beijing as the sole legitimate in all of China, but Wu Peifu is forced to make several far-reaching concessions to the Germans. Most prominently among them is the promise to restore the deposed Emperor, Aisin Gioro Puyi, who has been living in seclusion at the German concession in Tianjin ever since his expulsion from the Forbidden City by Feng Yuxiang in 1924. While Wu Peifu is reluctant at first, the Xuangtong Emperor is eventually restored as a constitutional monarch to the Dragon Throne shortly after the truce in April 1927 due to Wu exerting pressure on the remnants of the National Assembly. News of this event would send shockwaves throughout China and the world alike, with many sensing even more unrest in China akin to the conflict following the failed Manchu Restoration of 1917.

From the German perspective, China’s troubles spring from its lack of a strong and “balanced” government. The old empire, prior to 1911, had been too autocratic as an absolute monarchy, but China’s turn towards a Republican model of government has proven even more destructive. A modern country should draw its strength from a constitutional monarchy, the Germans believe, as a strong and continuous leadership guarantees perpetual stability more efficiently than frequently changing, corrupt warlords. With the new Republican regime in Russia, the ailing French Republic and the former Portuguese Republic (couped by monarchists in 1922) suffering from rampant instability and corruption and left-leaning Republican nations like the Commune of France, the Union of Britain and the recently proclaimed Republican state in India being plagued by radically changing leadership, ideological clash and feeble economic growth the world seemed to provide enough proof of this, let alone China itself, which since 1911 has suffered over two decades of political upheaval and civil war. Meanwhile, modern constitutional monarchies like the Oststaaten (especially Poland and Lithuania) as well as the recently reformed Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires and of course Germany itself prosper more than ever and are among the economically and militarily strongest nations on earth - therefore, a restoration in Beijing seems like a more than logical decision for the German Foreign Office.

Though deeply unhappy with any kind of concession to the foreign powers, Wu Peifu is in no position to bargain. Humiliated after his defeat in 1925 and largely discarded by many of his old allies, including his former subordinate Sun Chuanfang, the Germans present the only real opportunity to recover his former standing. Without their aid he might remain a regional warlord, but he could be nothing more.

The situation in mid-1927 (Fengtian Clique = brown, Northern Zhili Clique = blue, Southern Zhili Clique = yellow, Shanxi Clique = green)

After the war, peace seems to return in China, but internally, a new conflict is already starting to boil. Wu's position is not secured at all, he barely exerts influence over Zhili, Henan and Hebei as well as in a very limited way over Sichuan, which is still under the nominal control of Yang Sen, and the muslim provinces in Central China as well as Xinjiang and Sun's League of Eight Provinces, all of which have swayed their loyalty to the new monarchist regime in Beijing following the Xuantong Restoration, but in Yunnan, Shanxi and Manchuria, powerful opponents of Wu and the monarchy begin to conspire to restore the old Republican order.

Wu’s dramatic return to power however adds additional complications to the complicated internal power relations of the Zhili Clique. His seniority, political prestige, and possession of the Beijing Government demand respect on the part of his former protégé, the Nanjing Warlord Sun Chuanfang, but it’s also no secret that Sun’s military strength and cooperation are vital for the survival of the restored regime, as Wu's forces are extremely overstretched. A Zhili-internal power struggle begins to unfold, as Sun is only reluctantly willing to subordinate himself to Wu despite being de facto more powerful. This situation is made even more complicated by German diplomatic overtures.

Despite accepting most of the German demands after the Third Zhili-Fengtian War, Wu denies the German request for granting the Mitteleuropa bloc preferential treatment on the Chinese market and further German concessions along the coast, as he is not willing to make himself a complete puppet of a foreign imperialist power. This would backfire, as the Germans instead approach Sun Chuanfang for economic concessions, who proves far more receptive. The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank (German-Asian Bank), based out of Tsingtau, has been in talks with Sun Chuanfang since early 1927 concerning a set of loans to help finance the latter's considerable war debt; unwilling or unable to provide the necessary capital, after some extensive lobbying an agreement could be reached whereby Berlin would underwrite the bank's loans to Nanjing - the group of colonial officials, bankers, and business owners responsible would become known known as the "German East Asia Society" (GEAS), a predecessor organisation of the AOG. Their influence on Sun's local government in Nanjing would gradually increase over the coming months. Despite his control over the national government, Wu cannot afford to discipline Sun, whose position is now bolstered all the further by German financial aid. The Germans have thus found a way to get the concessions they want without substantially weakening the Zhili Clique as a whole.

Meanwhile, for Japan the situation looks very dire indeed. Increased German economic, political and military influence in China would not only make it impossible for the Japanese to expand their influence on the other side of Shanhaiguan, but it would potentially directly threaten Japan’s well-established position in Manchuria. Already predisposed to see threats to Manchuria as threats to Korea, and from there indirect threats to the Home Islands themselves, the Japanese hurry to prop up the Fengtian Clique to counter German influence as soon as possible. Once again bottled in Manchuria, facing high inflation due to printing money to fund his frequent wars, and without substantial allies south of the wall, Zhang Zuolin is well aware that he needs an alternate approach to bring down the Zhili. Solely attacking through the Shanhai Pass promises only renewed slaughter, and his only ally, the now geographically isolated Zhang Zongchang in Shandong is tenuous by virtue of his isolation. Previously this sort of problem could be solved by allying with the Kuomintang and remnants of the Anhui Clique, but these factions are long defeated and Sun Chuanfang has begun to extend his grip across much of the south.

As the Zhili Clique begins to slowly consolidate its control over Northern China, a shadowy battle begins, pitting Fengtian and Japanese agents against those of Germany and Zhili. Rumors of plots and intrigue spread, both real and unreal, as generals and politicians turn against one another. Ultimately, Fengtian and Japan are relatively unsuccessful, only the isolated Tang Jiyao in distant Yunnan is open to direct action. The greatest division they might have exploited, between Northern and Southern Zhili, remains unaffected. Nevertheless, another approach can be found when Shanxi enters into secret negotiations with Mukden and Tokyo: Governor Yan Xishan has grown worried, as he had never expected Wu Peifu to recapture Beijing. The ever-growing dominance of the Zhili Clique begins to seriously threaten the position of neutrality Shanxi has maintained for nearly a decade. This is made all the more worrisome by the refuge Yan has provided to the remnants of Feng Yuxiangs Guominjun. Yan had hoped to use Feng’s forces to better prop up his position, and perhaps to release them at an opportune moment to further divide his enemies, but now they have become something of a liability. Wu Peifu’s hate for Feng is intense, brought on by the betrayal at Beijing that lead to his humiliation and near-total defeat two years prior.

These concerns cause Yan to turn to Zhang Zuolin, and this realignment promises to be strategically decisive. Not only does Shanxi lie close to Wu Peifu’s personal headquarters at Luoyang, but Luoyang is also only a short distance away from Zhengzhou, which serves as a nexus for the western half of China’s railway system. With Zhang Zongchang already blocking the Jinpu line in the east, Yan Xishan would only need to seize Zhengzhou to separate north from south, cutting off the Northern and Southern Zhili Cliques from each other: Sun Chuanfang’s reinforcements would never be able to reach Wu Peifu’s front line, and the Fengtian Clique might have a chance of breaking through at Shanhaiguan.

Zhang Zuolin's plan.

However, Zhang Zuolin makes a grave mistake when including Zhang Zongchang into his calculations; he naturally expects his former close associate, who is now cut off from the rest of the Fengtian Clique in Shandong, to remain loyal to his own course, but Zhang Zongchang has different plans. Stuck between a rock and a hard place, namely the Zhili forces to the west and the Germans in Kiautschou, he is faced with a conundrum. His only easy access to food and ammunition comes through the German port concessions, which makes him dangerously dependent on a foreign power. The Germans are quick to notice the volume of supplies moving through Tsingtao, and soon threaten to block access in case Zhang Zongchang becomes involved in future fighting. With little choice in the matter he accepts and promises neutrality without the knowledge of his nominal superiors in Mukden.

Nonetheless, Zhang Zuolin begins to set up the details for his plan to bring down the Zhili Clique, hoping to repeat the strategic factors behind Wu Peifu's defeat in 1924, specifically the seizure of the north-south Jinpu and Jinhan railway lines connecting north and central China. With north and south divided, Fengtian forces would be able sweep across the North China Plain, and this time there should be no chance of recovery for Wu. From such a position, and after years of fighting, Zhang might again push for a negotiated unification conference - which would finally manifest his uncontested rule over all of China, not only Manchuria.

1928 (Fourth Zhili-Fengtian War and Legation Treaty)

In early March, Zhang Zuolin's daring plan is put into action when Yan Xishan of Shanxi officially declares the Qing government illegitimate, soon followed by Yunnan, in an arrangement to re-ignite the long-looming tensions in China: It is the beginning of the Fourth Zhili-Fengtian War. The Fengtian Clique in the north immediately mobilizes and moves its forces southwards, but Zhang Zongchang effectively betrays his superiors by reneging on his his prior secret agreements with the Germans, using his newly supplied Japanese arms to consolidate his own rule instead. Zhang's neutrality however would only be one of many factors that would eventually lead to the failure of the operation: Due to German intelligence, Yan Xishan’s strike force aiming to take Wu’s personal headquarters at Luoyang and the railway junction at Zhengzhou are cut off and eliminated, and attempts to break the Jinhan line further to the north at Shimen are also foiled; by the time Fengtian’s forces are fully mobilized in the northeast the war of mobility in the west is already effectively over.

Yunnanese troops soon find themselves bogged down in the Sichuanese mountains and plateaus of the southwest - while Tang Jiyao would not be of much help in the northern theatres of the war, his limited operations in the south would at least destroy the fragile power balance in unrest-plagued Sichuan. Bottled in Shanxi and Manchuria respectively, the element of surprise so deftly denied, Zhang Zuolin and Yan Xishan are however in no position anymore to win the war. Therefore, by April, in an effort to shift the war in their favour, the Japanese begin to provide increasingly direct assistance - soon followed foot by Germany. German-piloted aircraft appear over Beijing, and Japanese divisions wearing Chinese uniforms reinforce Fengtian forces. After nearly two months of fighting, Zhili forces manage to make a breakthrough at Yangquan, threatening Yan’s capital at Taiyuan, and bringing him close to dropping out of the war.

As Zhili divisions move West and North, and the economy takes a turn for the worse due to being stuck in constant war for over a decade, a certain level of lawlessness returns to many areas in Eastern & Southeastern China, quickly exploited by local Kuomintang holdouts, bandits, and “sword societies” such as the Red Spears. In the mountains of Fujian and Jiangxi, former KMT detachments which retreated there in early 1927 after the failed Northern Expedition, begin to train guerilla forces and set up pseudo-administrative structures via an underground web of allied towns and rebel cells - the later foundation for the MinGan Insurgent Zone.

In June, tensions between the Germans and Japanese would boil over. When a train full of foreign passengers travelling from Shanghai to Tianjin, the "Jade Wind", is derailed outside Suzhou and its occupants are kidnapped by bandits, the Japanese garrison in Shanghai seizes the opportunity to mount a “rescue expedition”. Due to the unilateral nature of the action, little to no prior warning provided by the Japanese, and the ongoing war to the north, local Chinese forces of Sun Chuanfang mistake the sudden appearance of Japanese troops on Chinese soil for a Japanese invasion - soon after, direct confrontation between Japanese and Chinese forces occurs before their superiors in Nanjing, Shanghai or Tokyo are notified. Beijing lodges a fierce protest at the violation of their sovereignty, and riots break out in the Jiangnan region, but more importantly Germany threatens to intercede. For nearly forty eight hours the conflict looks likely to escalate even further as the sides assess the situation and the foreign ministries in Berlin and Tokyo frantically aim to avoid direct war.

A solution emerges when the United States of America offer to mediate, and even though fighting continues between the Chinese factions elsewhere in China, a ceasefire is organized for the area surrounding Shanghai. This mediation however comes at a cost - the Americans, who have long been worried about their own influence in East Asia with the Great Depression worsening further and further and Japan and Germany increasing their own influence in China more and more, insist on a permanent solution” to the balance of power conflict in East Asia in addition to a de-escalation of the immediate crisis. The result of preliminary talks is a call for an American-mediated conference in Shanghai involving all foreign powers with treaty commitments in China, though the primary players are Germany, Japan, and the United States. Talks are almost ended before they begin when Germany and Japan insist upon Canadian non-participation due to the “lack of a responsible British government”, leading American delegate Quentin Roosevelt to suggest that the Canadian delegation should participate in an “observational role”.

China in August 1928 following the Legation Treaty (needs to be fixed)

Even though it initially began as an attempt to merely resolve the looming German-Japanese proxy conflict in China and East Asia, the conference further develops into a comprehensive restructuring of the relationship between China and the international powers, heavily shaped by the American insistence on the “Open Door Policy”. On 18 August, after lengthy negotiations, the Legation Treaty is signed - the success of this agreement, which officially creates an International Mandate for the Chinese Concessions, is dependent on Japan’s hopes to avoid further international isolation, Germay's desire to expand her influence in China without further significant military commitment, and American aspirations to preserve their own position despite a public with little desire for military adventurism. The new International Mandate, commonly referred to as the “Legation Cities” after the Legation Quarter in Beijing where its existence was formally declared, subsequently exists as an expanded and modified version of the earlier International Settlements in Shanghai and Kulangsu. All of Shanghai is declared a neutral zone, where Chinese troops are not allowed to enter.

In addition, the powers agree to bring about an end to the ongoing conflict in China, bringing both sides to sign an armistice - Shanxi and Yunnan are forced to recognize the Qing government in Beijing as the sole legitimate Chinese government, but the Fengtian Clique stands as an exception, signing the armistice but refusing to recognize the Qing as legitimate thanks to Japanese insistence. Zhang Zuolin instead establishes the Fengtian Government (of the Republic of China) in continuation of the old Beiyang Republic with the remants of the Republican-minded National Assembly, declaring the Empire illegitimate. The Qing do the same for the Republic.

The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank is one of the most prestigious foreign banking institutions in China. Since its foundation in 1889, it gradually expanded throughout most of East Asia and played a major role in the underwriting of bonds for the Chinese government & various warlords and in the financing of railway construction in China.

After the Legation Treaty, peace seems to finally return to China once and for all. Still, to be better prepared and protected for the future, Guangdong and Guangxi decide to strengthen their ties; Chen Jiongming withdraws his men from Guangxi territory and both provinces start an ambitious modernization program. Receiving advice from Chen, the elderly Lu Rongting invites Ma Junwu, a celebrated scientist, educator and President of the Guangxi University, to lead the civil administration of Guangxi while general Ma Ji, adoptive son of Lu, takes the responsibility of army modernization. Additionally, the Treaty of Liangguang Mutual Defense and Assistance is signed between both provinces. By its terms, Guangdong and Guangxi will respect each others' autonomy as part of a loose federation and cooperate in order to protect it. This can be considered a first step towards Chen Jiongming's dream of a federal China.

Around the same time, German financial representatives begins to increase their pressure on Sun Chuanfang. When GEAS officials meet Sun in late 1928, they present him with terms similar to those rejected by Wu Peifu one and a half years earlier - but different to Wu, Sun is not in a position to refuse. The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank and various German commercial entities receive exclusive and virtually open access to resources in the League's interior. Tariffs, typically set by the Chinese Maritime Customs Service with multi-national foreign oversight, are remitted for German imports. In return, Sun would receive further loans and extensive access to German military hardware. Eager to contest Wu Peifu's central government, and beholden to his outstanding debts, Sun has little choice but to sign - a new era of German economic influence in China begins, putting Germany in a more powerful position than ever before and making it possible for them to bypass the Open Door policy hold up by the International Mandate in Shanghai.

Peace at last?

1929

When spring is dawning, the newly reconvened National Assembly in Beijing holds the first elections of the restored Qing Empire, which follow the the procedure of previous Republican elections: Voters choose around 30,000 electors who then choose about 2,000 members of the provincial assemblies and 596 members of the House of Representatives, the poll is direct. 274 members of the Senate are elected by the members of the provincial assemblies who had been elected in 1909. Adult males over the age of 21 who are educated enough or own property and pay taxes and who can prove two-year residency in a particular county are allowed to vote. In total, an estimated 40 million, 4-6% of China's population, are registered for this meaningful first election. The Senate is elected by the provincial assemblies. The premier has to pick the 108 members representing Tibet, Mongolia, Manchuria and Overseas Chinese due to practical reasons, even though they are not formally part of the Empire. However, the elections, the first official ones since 1921, see the participation of over 300 civic groups and are most competitive nationwide elections since 1913.

In the end, the pro-Zhili Harmony Association wins an overwhelming majority due to an abundance of bribery and lack of united opposition - the remnants old the Anfu Club from Anhui Clique times had collapsed in support coming a distant second, while the KMT had been outlawed after the Northern Expedition and are therefore not allowed to participate and the Communications Clique, once one of the most powerful interest groups in Beijing, mostly had relocated to Mukden after the Xuantong Restoration, cooperating with the remnants of the Republican National Assembly in the Fengtian Government. At Wu Peifu's direction, the ailing Cao Kun is appointed Premier; his time under arrest by Feng Yuxiang has weakened him both physically and mentally, reducing him to less of a credible rival to Wu as leader of the Zhili Clique (his brother, Cao Rui, committed suicide while under house arrest – this had a profound effect on Cao Kun, driving him to alcoholism and depression) and his appointment can thus be considered that of a unity candidate within the Zhili Clique.

WIP!!!!!

Representatives from Guangdong are made up of the Zhi Gong (Public Interest) party of Chen Jiongming who support the Zhili government because Cao has promised federal reforms. Representatives from Yunnan and Guizhou stand as independents.

Meanwhile in Yunnan, Tang Jiyao's position begins to crumble more and more. The result of the failed war in the previous year has led to a loss of confidence of many of his subordinates in their leader, as it is only one of many defeats of the Yunnan Clique in the last decade. The Yunnan forces of the former NRA, led by Zhu Peide, Jin Handing and Fan Shisheng unite and call themselves Yunnan National Foundation Army (Jianguo Dianjun). Tang Jiyao refuses to share any power with them. The Yunnan National Foundation Army controls an area in the Yunnan-Guizhou border region, while New Guangxi Clique led by Li Zongren is stationed near Yunnan-Guangxi border.

1930

Wu Peifu returns his base of operations to Luoyang in Henan (because of its great strategic security compared to Beijing) and despite not having taken the position of Premier himself instead opting for head of the Imperial Army, he still de facto controls the government.

The first meeting of the Board of the Aufsichtsrat der Ostasiatischen Generalverwaltung (AOG) is held, marking its beginning as an umbrella organisation for German commercial interests in China, centered on the East Yangtze (Jiangnan). They are mostly active in the cities of Canton, Quemoy, Wenzhou and Nantong where Sun Chuanfang granted them exclusive commercial rights.

After surviving an attempted assasination by the nephew of one of his many victims, Zhang Zhongchang is heavily influenced by the Shangqing and is eventually initiated into Yiguandao by Zhang Tianran himself. The Yiguandao is an old religious sect operating from the top of Mount Tai in Shandong. Contemporary claims are made that the "filial murder" might have been part of a plan set up by a local Zhili governor to remove Zhang as a political rival.

In late March, Tibetan troops invade Sichuan without formal declaration of war to gain back control over Xikang, triggering the Xikang War; Sichuan, plagued by corruption, anarchy and looming famine, is mostly powerless and almost loses the whole territory to Tibet, but in the last moment, the Ma Clique under muslim warlord Ma Fuxiangintervenes and occupies Tibetan Chamdo. Tibet withdraws from most of Xikang, but occupiues Sichuanese territory until the Jinsha River.

Zhang Tianran declares himself the 18th Master of I-Kuan Tao. The movement has firmly established itself in Shandong, reducing corruption and improving the local economy as a result. Banditry is practically non-existent as the forces of Zhang Zhongchang keep the peace, supported by many emerging local paramilitary militias of I-Kuan Tao followers. The German concession of Qingdao appreciates this added security and the movement is looked on favourably by the German colonial authorities, despite some of the I-Kuan Tao's stronger anti-imperialist rhetoric.

Border conflicts again escalate between New Guangxi clique and Old Guangxi clique. Chen Jiongming and Zhao Hengti, the governor of Hunan, mediate the conflict. A cordial agreement between Southwestern cliques was reached.

Cao Kun’s Premiership focuses mainly on bringing in elements of his 1923 Constitution into the new Qing model, which establishes greater provincial autonomy, but still fall far short of full federalism – this leads the Zhi Gong to withdraw support for the government. Cao remains a divisive figure though, and although acceptable to the Zhili faithful, the legacy of the bribery scandal deepens cracks appearing in the Harmony Association.

Zhang Junmai forms the China Democratic League, a social democrat association, but their activity is limited by the authorities.

1931

The German military mission helps in re-establishing the Baoding Military Academy near Beijing. This, in conjunction with an exchange program for young officers being sent to Germany, begins to form a putative officer corps separate from the Zhili faction.

Yang Zengxin, the elderly governor of Xinjiang since 1911, discovers that his interior minister, Fan Yaonan, is secretly an assasin sent by the Kuomintang. He quickly fires him, with Fan trying to escape but being hunted down by Yang's protege, Jin Shuren. Crisis in the stable Xinjiang clique is averted.

Flooding happens in Changjiang River and Huaihe River basin, leading to hundred thousands of deaths.

Zhang Tianran begins to more openly criticise the warlordism that has plagued China and in particular blames the Zhili Clique and Wu Peifu in particular for the state of China. He denounces the Republic as an impure failed experiment and argues for traditional values to be returned in China as a whole. While not explicitly mentioned, many assume this means his loyalty lies with the Qing Emperor.

Tang Jiyao starts an invasion of Sichuan, beginning the Fourth Yunnan-Sichuan War, to remove the Zhili leadership of the province. Like previous attempts to invade the province, he fails and retreats back to Yunnan.

Cracks in the Foundation

1932

By the middle of 1932, a mix of restlessness and the blatant corruption of Sun Chuanfang’s League convinces both the Shanghai syndicalists and the rural KMT remnants that the time was ripe for action. They soon begin a general uprising in and around Shanghai; sparking similar risings in Nanjing, Wuhan, and several cities along the Southeastern Coast.

The big problem: Sun Chuanfang’s League troops are not allowed to enter the Shanghai Neutral Zone, and the Shanghai Syndicalists can easily emerge from the zone, only to dart back across the border to escape retaliation. The Consular Council of the Legation Cities proves itself too slow to react to the rapidly developing situation, as its members fear sparking a crisis between still-hostile German and Japanese troops, and the Shanghai Municipal Council find its volunteer forces inadequate to effectively secure the entire thirty-miles of the “Neutral Zone” surrounding the city.

After some time and despite fierce Japanese protest, LEP troops are permitted to enter the zone under the command of German officers, with the German diplomatic corps arguing that this made them “German” and not “Chinese”. This sets a precedent for increasingly direct German interference in Chinese affairs, enrages the Japanese, and deeply embarrasses the Legation authorities.

Given increased scrutiny following the Shanghai Uprising, and a recent unrelated corruption scandal, the GEAS (German East Asia Society) decides to reorganize and re-brand. The "Aufsichtsrat der Ostasiatischen Generalverwaltung" or "AOG" is founded, heralding further expansion of German economic influence in southern and eastern China.

In Guangdong, Chen Jiongming significantly reduces the size of Guangdong army to invest in the economic reconstruction of Guangdong.

Thanks in part to its Right-Kuomintang "guests", Yunnan is burdened with an oversized military force. Tang Jiyao proposes an army reduction plan, but no one including himself in Yunnan really supports it and the plan fails.

1933

Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama and and spiritual leader of Tibet, dies aged 57. The Reting Rinpoche is installed as the Regent, however he serves only as a figurehead of the chaotic government. Four main factions unfold in the conflict, the liberal Kyicho Kuntun movement, the progressive Tibet Improvement Party, the reformist Young Tibet Party and the traditionalist faction.

Thuben Kunphela, an influential military leader in Tibet, is accused of murdering the Dalai Lama and arrested. For this "crime", Kunphela is sent in exile and all his property is confiscated. He flees south and searches refuge with a group of Tibetan exiles in the young Indian Republic. There Kunphela meets the Panchen Lama, who arrives from Mongolia, and their bond to return to Tibet as revolutionaries is forged. This meeting of exiled religious & military leaders leads to the founding of the revolutionary Tibet Improvement Party, whose support derives from both the KMT-in-exile and the ruling parties of Azad Hind who wish to pacify Tibet’s reactionary fever.

The 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu is born and discovered in Tibet, moved to Mongolia and installed as Bogd Khan. Ungern-Sternberg continues his regency.

The 1933 Chinese Elections see a much reduced Harmony Association retain a thin majority. Cao Kun retains his Premiership, though he is physically and mentally ruined by years of alcohol abuse and chronic depression.

Tang makes another attempt to attack Sichuan, triggering the Fifth Yunnan-Sichuan War, but is deterred by LEP forces, who finally want stability in the South. Yunnan resorts to expanding its opium plantations to solve its abysmal financial problem. Confidence in Tang Jiyao is at an all-time low.

1934

Kang Youwei dies aged 76. Leadership of the nascent NCERA, China's most influential agrarian monarchist party, passes onto Y.C. "Jimmy" Yen, Liang Shuming, and his daughter Kang Tongbi.

Meanwhile, the Germans begin to lose their interest in Wu Peifu, and seeking to prop up Puyi against Wu in the North , begin to channel weapons and supplies to Zhang Tianran's Shandong-based Yiguandao, who support a strong Chinese monarch. By this time the Yiguandao faith has begun to spread out of Shandong province and now has sizeable sects in both north and south China.

In an attempt to revitalize the flagging and ideologically nebulous Harmony Association, Cao Kun and Wu Peifu begin the first stage of the "National Revitalization Scheme", aimed at ending China's enormous international trade deficit and heavily modernizing the country. Reactions are mixed, with little progress made outside the North China Plain.

1935

The health of Yang Zengxin, of the Xinjiang Clique, continues to decline, and he is left mostly bedridden. He spends as much time as possible teaching his protégé Jin Shuren how to run the province, but it seems to mostly fall onto deaf ears.

Lungshar, an influential figure in Tibetan politics and founder of the liberal Kyicho Kuntun movement, petitions the council of Tibet for government reform. Trimön, Tibet's archconservative strongman, is deeply upset at this attempt of reform and democracy. He frames Lungshar for a supposed attempt to start a socialist revolution and has him imprisoned, tortured, and blinded. This disgusts and angers Lungshar’s supporters, and many continues party activities underground.